PRACTICAL SYSTEM 
I 

OF 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

ZN WHICH THE PRINCIPLES OF THE LANGUAGE ARE PLAINLY AND 
FAMILIARLY TAUGHT BY 

Km + J V- 

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS, 

I 

AND ILLUSTRATED BY A COPIOUS VARIETY OF 

PRACTICAL EXAMPLES. 



BY LUTHER AINSWORTH, 

AUTHOR OF " PRACTICAL MERCANTILE ARITHMETIC.' 




PROVIDENCE : 
B. CRANSTON & CO. JOHN E. BROWN. 

MDCCCXXXVII. 




Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year one thousand 
eight hundred and thirty-seven, by Luther Ainsworth, in the Clerk's 
office of the District Court of the District of Rhode- Island. 



Sen; $ 






PREFACE. 



This system of English Grammar is presented to the pub- 
ic, unattended by any high-sounding title or recommendations 
to support it ; the author being well aware, that its own merit 
alone can insure the public patronage. The only hope of 
its success arises from the belief that sufficient improvement 
will be found in it, to warrant its adoption by those teachers 
who wish to avail themselves of every improvement in the 
science of education. 

The author would observe, that the plan of instruction here 
pursued, is the result of many years spent in the instruction 
of youth ; he therefore respectfully solicits a careful and 
thorough examination of the work, and he feels confident that 
no competent teacher will condemn it, until he has thus ex- 
amined it. By the interrogative method of instruction, here 
pursued, the mind of the learner is at once concentrated upon 
every important part of the subject under consideration, and 
it is believed that the answers and illustrations are so plain 
and familiar, as to be clearly understood by any scholar of 
ordinary capacity, and of a suitable age to engage in the 
study of Grammar. In this system, it has been the particular 
object of the author, not only to illustrate every important 
part of the subject in the plainest manner possible, but, also, 
to divest it of all incumbrance calculated to perplex and 
darken the understanding. 



IV PREFACE. 

It may be thought that some parts of this work are too 
elaborate for new beginners, particularly the Conjugation of 
the Verbs ; if so, the judgment of the teacher will readily 
dictate what part may be omitted, the first time going through 
it ; but on a review, it will be found best to require the learner 
to make himself thoroughly acquainted with each lesson as 
he proceeds, and also with the application of the Examples for 
Exercise, It is believed that there is a greater variety of 
Rules for parsing contained in this system, and more fully 
adapted to the usages of the language, than can be found in 
any Grammar now in use; and that the manner in which 
those Rules are illustrated, is calculated to give the work a 
decided preference in that respect. 

Experience has fully satisfied the author that he hazards 
little in saying, that a class, under a judicious instructer, and 
following strictly the plan here laid down, will acquire more 
practical knowledge of Grammar in three months, than is 
usually obtained in as many years in the ordinary method of 
teaching. How extravagant ! will, no doubt, be the excla- 
mation of many, on reading the foregoing. But let the ex- 
periment be tried, and if it fail, then, and not till then, let the 
appellation of extravagance rest upon 

THE AUTHOR. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



LESSON I. 
GRAMMAR. 

Q. What do you understand by the word, Grammar ? 

A. Grammar teaches us to express and communicate our 
thoughts, either in speaking or writing, with strict propriety. 

Q. What farther do you learn by the study of Grammar? 

A. We learn the nature of Sentences, and the particular 
connexion and dependence of every word of which a sentence 
is composed. 

Q. Into how many Parts is English Grammar divided ? 

A. Into four Parts, namely, Orthography, Etymology, 
Syntax, and Prosody. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Q. What does Orthography teach you ? 

A. It teaches us the nature and power of letters, as re- 
gards their proper sounds and correct use, in spelling words. 

Q. What is the most important division of Letters ? 

A. Into Vowels and Consonants. 

Q. What is a Vowel ? 

A. It is a letter, the speaking or naming of which, makes 
a distinct articulate sound, and is uttered by a single impulse 
of the voice, without the aid of any other letter or sound ; as 
a, o, u. 

Q. Which are the Vowel letters ? 

A. They are a, e, i, o, u, and, sometimes, w, and y. 

Q. When are w, and y, used as Vowel letters ? 

A. They are Vowels when they do not begin a word or 
syllable ; when they do begin a word or syllable, they are 
Consonants. 



6 SYLLABLES AND WORDS. 

Q. Which are the Consonants ? 

A. The Consonants comprehend all the letters in the 
Alphabet, except the Vowels, and are those that cannot be 
named or spoken without the help of some other letter or 
sound ; as, b, d, g, 1, m, n. 

Q. What is a Dipthong ? 

A. It is a union of two Vowels in one syllable, pronounced 
by a single impulse of the voice ; as, ea, in eagle ; ou, in 
ounce ; ei, in either. 

Q. How many kinds of Dipthongs are there ? 

A. There are two kinds, Proper and Improper. 

Q. What is a Proper Dipthong ? 

A. It is one in which both the Vowels are sounded ; as, 
oi, in the word voice ; ou, in ounce. 

Q. What is an Improper Dipthong ? 

A. It is one in which but one of the Vowels is sounded: 
as, ei, in the word either ; ea, in eager. 

Q. What is a Tripthong ? 

A. It is a union of three Vowels in one syllable, pro- 
nounced by one impulse of the voice ; as, eau, in the word 
beauty ; iew, in viewing. 

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE. 

He was branded as a traitor. Gentlemen may cry peace. 
Thou probest my wound, instead of healing it. The word 
burgh, signifies a town or city that sends a member to par- 
liament. 

questions. 

Which are the vowels in each word ? Which are conso- 
nants ? In which words are w and y, vowels ? In which 
are they consonants ? In which words are dipthongs ? Are 
they proper or improper ? In which words are tripthongs ? 



LESSON II. 
SYLLABLES AND WORDS. 

Q. What is a Syllable ? 

A. A Syllable is a simple sound, or a combination of 
sounds, uttered by a single impulse of the voice, and is rep- 



SYLLABLES AND WORDS. * 

resented by one or more letters, forming a word, or a part of 
a word ; as, a, the, man, pa-per, pal-pa-ble. 

Q. What are Words ? 

A. Words are articulate sounds, consisting of one or more 
syllables, and are used to communicate our ideas to each other.^ 

Q. How are Words, consisting of a different number of 
syllables, distinguished from each other ? 
* A. Words of one syllable are called Monosyllables. 
Words of two syllables are called Dissyllables. Words of 
three syllables are called Trissyllables. And all Words of 
more than three syllables are called Polysyllables. 

Q. How can you tell how many syllables any word 
must be divided into ? 

A. Every word consists of as many syllables as there 
are single vowels, or single vowels and dipthongs contained 
in it, excepting such as end with a final e; as, com-mu-ni-ca- 
tion, ac-com-mo-date. 

Q. How are Words divided, and distinguished from each 
other ? 

A. They are divided into four Classes, and distinguished 
as Primitive, Derivative, Simple, and Compound. 

Q. What is a Primitive Word ? 

A. It is a Word expressed in its simple, radical form, and 
cannot be reduced to any more simple word in the language; 
as, man, hope, good, content. 

Q. What is a Derivative Word 1 

A. It is a Word formed from a Primitive Word, by the 
addition of one or more syllables; as, manful, hopeless, good- 
ness, contentedness. 

Q. What is a Simple Word ? 

A. It is a Word expressed in a simple form, and is not 
compounded by the addition of any other word ; as, justice, 
patience, love, fear. 

Q. What is a Compound Word ? 

A. It is a Word composed of two or more simple Words; 
as, man-kind, book-seller, house-keeper, meeting-house. 

examples. 
I give my hand and my heart to this vote. Go, starve? 
and be forgotten. He was a harsh overseer. The glow- 
worm shows the matin to be near. The rainbow is a beau- 
tiful emblem of the protecting providence of the Almighty. 



8 ETYMOLOGY. THE 'ARTICLE* 

QUESTIONS. 

What words are primitive? Which are derivative? Which 
are simple ? Which are compound ? Which words are 
monosyllables? Which are dissyllables ? Which are tris- 
syllables ? Which are polysyllables ? In which words are 
dipthongs ? In which are tripthongs ? 



LESSON III. 
ETYMOLOGY. 

Q. Of what does Etymology treat ? 

A. It treats of the several Parts of Speech, the Classes 
into which they may be divided, and the changes to which 
they are subject, in order to adapt them to their proper situ- 
ation in a sentence, as regards their agreement and govern- 
ment. 

Q. Into how many classes are English words divided ? 

A. They are divided into ten Classes, and are called 
Parts of Speech. 

Q. What are the names of those Classes, or Parts of 
Speech? 

A. The Article, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Parti- 
ciple, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, and Interjection. 

THE ARTICLE. 

Q. What is an Article, and for what is it used ? 

A. An Article is a word placed before a noun, and is 
used to determine the extent of its signification, as relating to 
one or more. 

Q. How many Articles are there ? 

A. There are two, a or an, and the. 

Q. What is a or an called, and how is it used ? 

A. A or an is called the Indefinite Article, and is used 
to point out one thing of any kind, but does not designate 
which particular thing of that kind is meant ; as, if I say 
hand me a book, you may hand me any book near you. The 
boy caught a bird, does not designate what kind of a bird. 



THE ARTICLE. 9 

Q. When is an used instead of a ? 

A. An is used before words that begin with a vowel ; as, 
a, e, i, o, u ; and, also, before words that begin with a silent 
h ; as, an apple, an eagle, an inkstand, an ounce, an hour, 
an honest man. 

Q. Why is an used instead of a ? 

A. To render the pronunciation of the word easier ; as 
it is much easier to say an eagle, than to say a eagle : an 
enemy, than a enem} r ; an honest man, than a honest man. 

Q. Is not a sometimes used before words that signify- 
more than one ? 

A. A is used before Nouns of Multitude, or that signify 
many single things ; as, a dozen, a hundred, a thousand, a 
million. 

Q. Does a or an ever include the meaning of any other 
word ? 

A. It often means the same as each or every ; as, he 
earns two dollars a day; that is, two dollars each and every 
day. We rode ten miles an hour, that is, each or every hour. 

Q. What is the called, and how is it used ? 

A. The is called the Definite Article, and is used to de- 
signate some particular thing or things of the kind spoken of; 
as, the King of England, the President of the United States. 
Also, when I say, Henry, give me the book, I mean a partic- 
ular book that has been mentioned. 

Q. Is the Article, the, ever used in connexion with any 
other words than with nouns ? 

A. It is often used before Adjectives and Adverbs in the 
comparative degree, to express that degree more strongly ; 
as, the more I read the book, the better I like it ; the less that 
is said on that subject, the letter it will be for him. 

Q. Is it ever necessary that the Articles should be omitted? 

A. It is, when nouns are taken in their most extended sig- 
nification ; as, Man is subject to death ; that is, all mankind. 
Woman is the ornament of creation ; that is, womankind. 



EXAMPLES. 

The fleet was seen sailing up the channel. The eagle is 
an emblem of courage and strength. The birds awake to 
music at the approach of day. He would never do a mean 
or a dishonorable action, 



10 THE NOm 



QUESTIONS. 



What articles in each sentence ? Are they definite or in- 
definite ? What words do they point out ? In which words 
do you find dipthongs? Are they proper or improper? Do 
you find any tripthongs T 



LESSON IV. 
THE NOUN. 

Q. What is a Noun 1 

A . A Noun is the name of any person, place or thing * 
as, James, Boston, house, mountain, tree. It is, also, the 
name of any quality or propensity of the mind ; as, virtue, 
vice, pride, modesty, hunger^ thirst, haughtiness, revenge. 

Q. How may a Noun always be distinguished or known ? 

A. Any word or thing that we can talk of, or make the 
subject of discourse, is a Noun ; as, Philosophy, Chemistry, 
Mathematics,, Theology ; also, any thing that we can taste, 
feel, hear, or see, is a Noun. 

Q. How are Nouns divided ? 

A. They are divided into two classes, Proper and Common. 

Q. What are Common Nouns ? 

A. Common Nouns are appropriated to general names of 
things ; as, boy, girl, king, queen, house, field, river, moun- 
tain. Also, to designate a whole class or species ; as. The 
fish that swim in the sea, The fowl that fly in the air. 

Q. What are Proper Nouns, and how are they used ? 

A. Proper Nouns are the names of individual persons, 
places, and things, and are always used to point out one or 
more of those individuals ; as, John Smith, Mary Andrews, 
New- York, Boston, Providence, Alleghany Mountains, Mount 
Washington, Narragansett Bay, Long Island. 

Q. In what other particular can you distinguish a Com- 
mon from a Proper Noun ? 

A. A Common Noun should never begin with a capital let- 
ter, except at the beginning of a sentence or of a line in poe- 
try. Proper Nouns will always begin with a capital letter ; 
a3, I have bought the book, that you sold to James Smith. 



11 



MODIFICATIONS OF NOUNS. 

Q. What is meant by the Modification of Nouns or of 
any of the Parts of Speech ? 

A. By Modification is meant the changes in the form 
and ending of words, to which the several Parts of Speech 
are subject, in order to adapt them to their appropriate situa- 
tions in a sentence, as regards their Person, Number, Mode, 
Tense, Argreement, and Government. 

Q. How many Modifications belong to Nouns ? 

A. Four, namely, Person, Number, Gender, and Case. 

Q. How many Persons have Nouns ? 

A. They have three Persons, the First, the Second, and 
the Third. 

Q. How is the First Person distinguished ? 

A. The First Person denotes the speaker, or myself, as 
speaking ; as, I, your teacher, desire your improvement. I, 
your commander, must be obeyed. Here, the Nouns, teacher 
and commander are in the First Person, because they are the 
persons speaking. 

Q. When are Nouns in the Second Person ? 

A. When they are addressed, or spoken to, and always 
have reference to you, or yourself ; as, James, why do you 
not study ? Mary, you are idle. O, John, you are wrong. 
O, thou Ruler of the Universe. Here, the Nouns, James, 
Mary, John, and Ruler, are all of the Second Person, because 
they are spoken to. 

Q. When are Nouns of the Third Person ? 

A. They are of the Third Person, when the person, 
place or tiling is spoken of, or conversed about ; as, Henry 
has found his hook. Have you seen Charles ? He told me 
John had found my ball. Here, the Nouns, Henry, book, 
Charles, John, and ball, are all in the third person, because 
they are spoken of, or conversed about. 

EXAMPLES. 

I, John Smith, of lawful age, testify and say. I, your 
friend, desire your happiness and prosperity. Jane, your 
mother has bought you a new bonnet. O, Thomas ! your 
horse has run away with your chaise ! Benjamin, where is 
George ? Samuel, the sheep are in the meadow, take the 
dog, and drive them into the pasture. 



12 NUMBER. 



QUESTIONS, 



Which are the nouns in each sentence ? Are they proper 
or common 1 Are they first, second, or third persons ? 
What articles are there ? Are they definite or indefinite ? 

O" In these Examples, as well as in all that follow, the teacher 
will do well to extend his inquiries to such particulars as will bring 
into exercise all the information the learner acquires as he progresses 
in his recitations. 



LESSON V. 
NUMBER. 

Q. What is Number 7 

A. Number is that distinction of Nouns, which we make 
in speaking of one or more persons or things. 

Q. How many Numbers have Nouns ? 

A. Two, the Singular and Plural Number. 

Q. What does the Singular Number denote ? 

A. It denotes one single person, place or thing ; as, Wil- 
liam, Boston, house, a man, an orange, the boy. 

Q. What does the Plural Number denote ? 

A. It denotes any number of objects, more than one, as, 
men, birds, cities, houses, trees. 

Q. How is the plural of Nouns formed ? 

A. It is generally formed by adding s to the singular: as, 
table, tables ; apple, apples ; a bird, three birds. 

Q. When is es added to the singular, to form the plural ? 

A. When the singular ends in o, x, ch, sh, or ss, es is 
added to form the plural ; as, hero, heroes ; box, boxes ; 
church, churches ; bush, bushes ; dress, dresses. 

Q. When ch has the sound of k in the singular, how is 
the plural formed ? 

A. By adding s only to the singular ; as, monarch,, 
monarchs. 

Q. When the Singular Number ends in f 9 or in fe, how 
do you form the Plural ? 

A. By changing the/, or fe, into ves ; as, life, lives; 
knife, knives ; staff, staves ; calf, calves. 



NUMBER. 13 

Q. When the Singular ends in ff, or in /preceded by oo, 
how do you form the Plural ? 

A. By adding s only ; as, ruff, ruffs ; muff, muffs ; roof, 
roofs ; hoof, hoofs. 

Q. When the Singular ends in y, preceded by a conso- 
nant, how is the Plural formed ? 

A. By changing the y into ies ; as, lady, ladies ; body, 
bodies ; fly, flies ; sky, skies. 

Q. When y is preceded by a vowel, how is the Plural 
formed ? 

A. It is formed by adding s, only ; as, day, days ; key, 
keys ; toy, toys ; boy, boys. 

Q. Are all Nouns varied to express the two Numbers ? 

A. All Nouns are not ; some are used only in the Sin- 
gular Number, others only in the Plural, and some are the 
same in both numbers. 

Q. What Nouns are used only in the Singular Number? 

A. Most of the vegetable and mineral productions of the 
earth ; as, hay, wheat, rye, barley, rice, pitch, tar, turpen- 
tine, gold, silver, copper, lead, iron, zinc ; also, the passions 
and propensities of the mind ; as, pride, sloth, industry, hum- 
bleness, haughtiness, meekness, chasteness, lewdness, noble- 
ness, goodness, reverence; 

Q. What Nouns are used only in the Plural Number? 

A. Such as are composed of several parts, but are so 
united as to be known by one particular name ; as, bellows ; 
scissors, tongs, shears, snuffers, lungs, vitals, entrails, ashes, 
embers, bowels, archives, tidings, thanks, vespers, victuals. 

Q. What Nouns are the same in both Numbers ? 

A. Such as deer, sheep, swine, salmon, perch, trout. 

Q. Can you give me the Plural of the following Nouns? 

Questions. Answers. Questions. Answers. 

.Van Men 

Woman Women 

Ox Oxen 

Goose Geese 

Mouse Mice 

Die Dice 

X. B. Many nouns, derived from ancient and foreign 
languages, form their plurals according to the rules of those 
languages, and are, of course, irregular as respects our own. 



Penny 


Pence 


Foot 


Feet 


Tooth 


Teeth 


Brother 


Brethren or Brothers 


Child 


Children 



Q. Can you give me 


the Plural of the following Nouns I 


Questions. 


Answers. 


Questions. 


Answers. 


Antithesis 


Antitheses 


Erratum 


Errata 


Appendix 


Appendixes 


Genius 


Genii or Geniuses 


Arcanum 


Arcana 


Genus 


Genera 


Automaton 


Automata 


Index 


Indices or Indexes 


Axis 


Axes 


Hypothesis 


Hypotheses 


Basis 


Bases 


Lamina 


Laminae 


Cherub 


Cherubim 


Medium 


Media 


Crisis 


Crises 


Metamorphosis 


Metamorphoses 


Criterion 


Criteria 


Magus 


Magi 


Datum 


Data 


Memorandum 


Memoranda 


Ellipsis 


Ellipses 


Phenomenon 


Phenomena 


Effluvium 


Effluvia 


Radius 


Radii 


Emphasis 


Emphases 


Stamen 


Stamina 


Encomium 


Encomia 


Thesis 


Theses 



EXAMPLES. 

The oxen plough the field. The die is cast. He gave 
three pence for an orange. His foot is lame. The children 
are at school. Wheat is dear. Barley is plenty. Where 
are the scissors? The sheep are in the meadow. That 
sheep is mine. What church is that ? Hand me the box. 
The crisis has arrived. The sky is serene. The roof is on 
fire. Gold is precious. 

QUESTIONS. 

Which are the nouns? Are they proper or common? 
Of what person are they ? Why ? What number ? Why ? 
What is the singular or plural of it? How is the plural; 
formed ? 



LESSON VI. 
GENDER. 

Q. What is meant by the Gender of Nouns ] 

A. By Gender is understood the distinction of the sexes, 

Q. How many Genders have Nouns ? 

A. Three, the Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter- 






GENDER. 15 

Q. What does the Masculine Gender denote ? 

A. It denotes all persons and animals of the Male kind : 
as, man, boy, king, governor, master, gentlemen. 

Q. What does the Feminine Gender denote ? 

A. It denotes all persons and animals of the Female 
kind ; as, woman, girl, queen, princess, governess, lady. 

Q. What does the Neuter Gender denote ? 

A. It denotes all inanimate things, or things without life, 
and that are neither male nor female ; as, house, tree, iron, 
copper, brass, earth, air, water, fruit. 

Q. Are not many Nouns, which are, in their nature, of the 
Neuter Gender, often used as Masculine or Feminine Gender? 

A. They are so used by a " figure of speech," called 
Personification. 

Q. What do you understand by the Personification of 
a Noun ? 

A. A Noun is Personified when it is made to take the 
place of a person as speaking or acting, or as being spoken 
to ; as, " Doth not Wisdom cry, and Understanding put forth 
her voice." "I, Wisdom, dwell with Prudence" " O, Vir- 
tue, how amiable thou art." Here, Wisdom, Understanding, 
Prudence, and Virtue, are personified, because they are used 
as persons, acting, speaking, or being spoken to. 

Q. When Nouns are thus Personified, how are their 
Genders distinguished ? 

A. Those are used as Masculine, which are supposed to 
resemble Males in their character ; namely, such as are 
noted for strength, influence, power, sublimity ; such as are 
bold, daring, powerful, overbearing ; also, those that possess 
the power of imparting influence to other objects. 

Q. Which are some of the Nouns, that are used as Mas- 
culine, when Personified ? 

A. The Sun, the Ocean, War, Pestilence, Death, Time, 
Anger, Fear, Winter, Hurricane, and the like. 

Q. How are those, supposed to belong to the Feminine 
Gender, distinguished ? 

A. Those are of the Feminine Gender, which resemble 
the female character ; namely, such as are beautiful, amia- 
ble, feeble, gentle, prolific ; also, such as are calculated to 
receive influence from other objects. 

Q. What Nouns are used in the Feminine Gender, when 
Personified ? 



16 



GENDER. 



A. The Earth, the Moon, Hope, Reason, Religion, Peace. 
Fortune, Nature, Faith, Spring ; also, the names of flowers, 
as, the Lily, the Violet, the Tulip, the Rose, the Snow-Drop. 

Q. In how many ways are the Genders of Nouns, or the 
sexes distinguished ? 

A. They are distinguished in three different ways. 

Q. What is the first and most regular method of distin- 
guishing them ? 

A. By a different termination or ending of the Noun. 

Q. Can you give me the Feminine Gender of the follow- 
ing Nouns ? 



Questions. 


Answers. 


Questions 


. Answers. 


Abhot 


Abbess 


Jew 


Jewess 


Actor 


Actress 


Lion 


Lioness 


Ambassador Ambassadress 


Marquis 


Marchioness 


Arbiter 


Arbitress 


Mayor 


Mayoress 


Baron 


Baroness 


Patron 


Patroness 


Benefactor 


Benefactress 


Poet 


Poetess 


Caterer 


Cater ess 


Priest 


Priestess 


Conductor 


Conductress 


Prince 


Princess 


Count 


Countess 


Prior 


Prioress 


Deacon 


Deaconess 


Prophet 


Prophetess 


Doctor 


Doctress 


Protector 


Protectress 


Elector 


Electress 


Seamster 


Seamstress 


Governor 


Governess 


Sultan 


Sultaness or Sultana 


Heir 


Heiress 


Tiger 


Tigress 


Host 


Hostess 


Tutor 


Tutoress or Tutress 


Hunter 


Huntress 


Viscount 


Viscountess 



Q. The following Nouns are more irregular, can you 
give me the feminine of them ? 



Questions. Answers. 

Administrator Administratrix 
Bride 



Bridegroom 

Executor 

Duke 

Hero 

Langrave 

Q. 
A. 



Executrix 
Duchess 
Heroine 
Langravine 



Questions. Answers. 

Male Female 

Testator Testatrix 
Traitor Tratrix or Traitress 
Czar Czarina 

Widower Widow 



What is the second method of distinguishing the sexes? 
By different names or words. 



GENDER. 



17 



Q. Can you give me the Feminine Gender of the follow- 
ing Nouns ? 



Questions. 

Bachelor 

Boy 

Brother 

Buck 

Drake 

Earl 

Father 

Friar 

Hart 

Husband 



Answers. 

Maid 

Girl 

Sister 

Doe 

Duck 

Countess 

Mother 

Nun 

Roe 

Wife 



Questions, 

King 
Lad 
Lord 
Man 
Master 
Nephew- 
Sloven 
Son 
Uncle 
Wizard 



Answers. 

Queen 

Lass 

Lady 

Woman 

Mistress 

Niece 

Slut 

Daughter 

Aunt 

Witch 



Q. What is the third method of distinguishing the sexes 1 
A. By prefixing a word, or attribute of distinction. 
q! What is the Feminine Gender of the following 
Questions. Answers.' 

Man-servant Maid-servant 

Male-child Female-child 

Male-descendant Female-descendant 

He-goat She-goat 

Male-orphan Female-orphan 

EXAMPLES. 

The actors performed their parts well ; but the actresses 
were deficient. The baroness was not present. The admin- 
istrator embezzled the estate. His benefactress will protect 
him. The governor granted his pardon. My hostess is very 
kind. The hero and heroine of the play were well repre- 
sented. The Dutchess is an excellent character, but the 
Duke is covered with infamy. Lady King is the daughter 
of Lord Byron. His male descendants are all dead. There 
are no female children remaining except a little orphan girl 



QUESTIONS. 

What articles? Are they definite, or indefinite 1 
nouns ? Proper or common ? Of what number 



What 
What an 
Sa ringular Y How in the plural ? How formed ? Of what 
gender? What in the masculine ? What in the feminine? 
Under which class of formation does each come ? 



18 



LESSON VII. 
CASE. 

Q. What do you understand by the Case of a Noun ? 

A. The Case of a Noun denotes the particular relation 
and connexion m which the Noun stands to another word, as 
relates to Us being the agent or doer of an action ; or of its 
being acted upon by some agent or doer. 

Q. How many Cases have Nouns 1 

A. They have three Cases ; the Nominative, the Pos- 
sessive, and the Objective. 

Q. What does the Nominative Case denote ? 

A. It denotes the agent, or doer of an action, and is the 
subject of the verb. If mere existence or being, or a partic- 
ular state of being is implied, the person or thing that exists, 
or that is m such state of being, is in the Nominative Case. 

Q. In the following sentences, viz.: John is, John exists, 
John lives, what is implied ? 

A. In those sentences, mere existence or being is implied. 

Q. Who is ? Who exists ? Who lives ? 

A. John. 

Q. What Case then is John in ? and why ? 

A. In the Nominative Case, because John is the subject 
of the Verbs, is, exists, and lives. 

Q. In the following expressions, viz. James sleeps, James 
sits, James is sick, James is crazy, what is implied ? 

A. In these sentences, not merely being, but a particular 
state of being is implied. 

Q. Who is sick? Who sleeps? Who sits? Whoiscrazv? 

A. James. 

Q. What Case then is James in ? and why ? 

A. In the Nominative Case, because James is the subject 
of the verbs, and is the person who is in those particular 
states of being. 

Q. When an action is performed, a deed done, or a crime 
committed, what will always be the Nominative Case of such 
action ? 

A. The person or thing that performed the action, or 
deed, or that committed the crime ; as, The carpenter built 
the house. The wind blew the house down. The man 
murdered his friend. 



CASE. 19 

Q. Who built the house ? What blew the house down 1 
Who murdered his friend ? 

Q. What Case, then, are carpenter, wind, and man in. 

and why ? 

A. They are in the Nominative Case, because they are 
the agents that have performed those actions. 
Q. What does the Possessive Case denote ? 
A. It denotes the possession of property or ownership ; 
as, the man's farm, the king's son, my father's house. Here 
the Nouns, man's, king's, and father's, are in the Possessive 
Case, because they denote the possession of property or own- 
ership. 

Q. How is the Possessive Case formed, or written 1 
A. It is generally formed by adding s to the Noun, sep- 
arated by an apostrophe ( ' ) ; as, John's hat. Mary's book. 
The hoy's father. 

Q. When the plural ends in s, or the singular ends in ss, 
how is the Possessive Case written ? 

A. The apostrophe only is generally added, and not the 
additional s : as, For goodness' sake. On eagles' wings. 
The Indians 7 hunting grounds are destroyed. 

Q. When the Noun ends in ence, how is the Possessive 
Case to be written ? 

A. The apostrophe, only, is to be added ; as, For con- 
science' sake. For prudence' sake. 

Q. When proper names end in s, how are they to be 
written, in the Possessive Case ? 

A. The apostrophe and s are both usually added ; as. 
Adams's administration. Thomas's almanac. James's book . 
But when proper names end in us, the apostrophe only may 
be added; as, Jesus' love. Brutus' speech. Cornelius' son. 
Q. In those nouns which ara alike in both numbers, as, 
deer, sheep, swine, how is the possessive singular distin- 
guished from the possessive plural? 

A. In the singular number, the apostrophe is placed be- 
fore the s, but in the plural it is placed after it ; as, Possess- 
ive Singular, The sheep's lamb. The deer's track. The 
swine's food. Possessive Plural, The sheeps' pasture. The 
deers' tracks. The swines' food. 

N. B. Names ending in n, form the possessive case, both 
in the singular and plural, the same ; as, The man's hat ; 
the men's hats. The woman's bonnet : the women's bonnets. 



20 THE ADJECTIVE. 

Two Nouns in the Possessive Case may sometimes follow 
each other ; as, Peter's wife's mother lay sick of a fever. 
My father's brother's son is here. 

Q. What does the Objective Case denote ? 

A. It denotes the object of a Verb, or Preposition, and 
is that state of a Noun which is immediately affected by the 
action of the Verb, or by the Preposition ; as, James struck 
Charles, John caught the birds. Henry threw the stone 
that hit John. Here Charles, birds, stone, and John, are the 
particular objects of the actions, struck, caught, threw, and hit. 
They are therefore in the Objective Case, and governed by 
those actions. He hit Charles with a stone. They went into 
the house. We passed over the river. Here stone, house, 
and river, are the objects of the words, or prepositions, with, 
into, and over, and are therefore in the Objective Case, and 
governed by them. 

EXAMPLES. 

We saw large droves of cattle on the road. By the con- 
stitution, every man's house is his castle. A prison, with a 
good conscience, is better than a palace with a guilty one. 
Hail, holy light, offspring of heaven. The man's buildings 
were destroyed by fire. Charles, why do you hurt that boy? 
Boys, will you do an errand for me ? James, your father's 
horse has run away with your uncle's chaise. 

QUESTIONS. 

Which are the articles ? Are they definite or indefinite ? 
Which are the nouns ? Are they proper or common ? Sin- 
gular or plural ? How is the plural formed ? Of what per- 
son, and why ? In what case, and why ? 






LESSON VIII. 
THE ADJECTIVE. 

Q, What is an Adjective ? 

A. An Adjective is a word joined to a Noun, to express 
its quality, or number, to restrict its meaning, or to define its 
color or shape ; as, A sweet apple. A pleasant day. Two 



THE ADJECTIVE. 21 

men. Four boys. A short voyage. A thin plank. A 
square box. A wbite hat. 

Q. Into how many Classes may Adjectives be divided ? 

A. Into four Classes, namely, Common, Numeral, Ordi- 
nal, and Superlative. 

Q. What do you understand by Common Adjectives ? 

A. They are such as are generally used to express the 
quality, color, or shape of the Noun ; that is, to tell us what 
kind of thing, any thing is ; as, A sweet temper. A large 
house. A diamond ring. A red shawl. A round ball. A 
long pole. A deep river. A high mountain. 

Q. What are Numeral Adjectives ? 

A. They are such as are used to express number ; as. 
One, twoi three, four, five, and so on, to any number. 

Q, What are Ordinal Adjectives? 

A. They are those which are used to express the order 
of things; as, First, second, third, fourth, fifth, and so on, 
indefinitely. 

Q. What are Superlative Adjectives ? 

A. They are such as will not admit of any increase of 
quality, or circumstance ; being such as express in them- 
selves, the highest possible degree. 

-Q. Which are some of the principal Adjectives of this 
class ? 

A. They are, almighty, all-powerful, eternal, everlasting, 
omnipotent, omnipresent, perpetual, perfect, supreme, straight, 
round, square. 

Q. Of what variations or modifications do Adjectives 
admit ? 

A. They admit only of the degrees of comparison, not 
being varied on account of person, number, gender, or case. 

Q. How many degrees of comparison have Adjectives ? 

A. They have three degrees, namely ; the Positive, the 
Comparative, and the Superlative degrees. 

Q. What does the Positive degree express ? 

A. It expresses the simple quality of a noun, without 
reference to the quality of any other object ; as, A noble ac- 
tion. A wise man. A beautiful flower. 

Q. What does the Comparative degree express ? 

A. It expresses an increase or decrease of the quality of 
a noun, as compared with some other object ; as, A nobler 

B* 



22 



THE ADJECTIVE* 



action. A wiser man. A more beautiful flower. Or, A less 
noble action. A less beautiful flower. 

Q. What does the Superlative degree express? 

A. It expresses the quality of a Noun, in the highest or 
lowest degree, as compared with other objects ; as, The no- 
blest action. The wisest man. The most beautiful flower. 
Or, The least noble action. The least wise man. The least 
beautiful flower. 

Q. How is the Comparative degree formed from the Pos- 
itive. 

A. When the Adjective consists of one syllable, the Com- 
parative is formed by adding r, or er, to the positive ; as, 
wise, wiser ; great, greater ; hard, harder ; high, higher. 

Q. How is the Superlative degree formed from the Posi- 
tive ? 

A. When the Comparative degree is formed by adding r f 
or er, the Superlative is formed by adding st, or est, to the 
Positive ; as, wise, wiser, wisest ; great, greater, greatest ; 
hard, harder, hardest. The Comparative and Superlative 
degrees are sometimes formed by placing the words less, and 
least, before Adjectives ; as, less wise, least wise. 

Q. When Adjectives consist of more than one syllable, 
how are the Comparative and Superlative degrees formed? 

A. By placing the words more, and most, before the Ad- 
jective ; as, amiable, more amiable, most amiable. 

Q. How do you compare the following Adjectives ? 



Questions. 


Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


Amiable 


Amiable 


more Amiable 


most Amiable 


Angelic 


Angelic 


more Angelic 


most Angelic 


August 


August 


more August 


most August 


Avaricious 


Avaricious 


more Avaricious 


most Avaricious 


Bold 


Bold 


Bolder 


Boldest 


Broad 


Broad 


Broader 


Broadest 


Beautiful 


Beautiful 


more Beautiful 


most Beautiful 


Base 


Base 


Baser 


Basest 


Careful 


Careful 


more Careful 


most Careful 


Cruel 


Cruel 


more Cruel 


most Cruel 


Credible 


Credible 


more Credible 


most Credible 


Dear 


Dear 


Dearer 


Dearest 


Direful 


Direful 


more Direful 


most Direful 


Dreadful 


Dreadful 


more Dreadful 


most Dreadful 





THE ADJECTIVE. 


23 


Questions. 


Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative, 


Durable 


Durable 


more Durable 


most Durable 


Eager 


Eager 


more Eager 


most Eager 


Easy 


Easy 


Easier 


Easiest 


Efficacious 


Efficacious 


more Efficacious 


most Efficacious 


Faii- 


Fair 


Fairer 


Fairest 


Fanciful 


Fanciful 


more Fanciful 


most Fanciful 


Few 


Few 


Fewer 


Fewest 


Fine 


Fine 


Finer 


Finest 


Great 


Great 


Greater 


Greatest 


Green 


Green 


Greener 


Greenest 


Handsome 


Handsome 


Handsomer 


Handsomest 


Humane 


Humane 


more Humane 


most Humane 


Humble 


Humble 


more Humble 


most Humble 


Judicious 


Judicious 


more Judicious 


most Judicious 


Kind 


Kind 


Kinder 


Kindest 


Lovely 


Lovely 


more Lovely 


most Lovely 


Ludicrous 


Ludicrous 


more Ludicrous 


most Ludicrous 


Manly 


Manly 


more Manly 


most Manly 


Munificent 


Munificent 


more Munificent 


most Munificent 


Noble 


Noble 


more Noble 


most Noble 


Numerous 


Numerous 


more Numerous 


most Numerous 


Old 


Old 


Older 


Oldest 


Painful 


Painful 


more Painful 


most Painful 



Q. How do you compare the following Irregular Adjec- 
tives 1 



Questions. Positive. 



Comparative. Superlative, 



Good 
Bad or 
Late 
Little 



111 



Good 
Bad or 111 
Late 
Little 



Better 
Worse 
Later 

Less 



Much or Many Much or Many More 
Near Near Nearer 



Best 
Worst 
Last 
Least 

Most 

Nearest or Next 



Q. Are Adjectives ever used as Nouns? 

A. They are used and passed as Nouns, when the Nouns 
to which they relate are not expressed, but understood; as, 
The wise may suffer wreck, the foolish must. The good 
shall be rewarded, but the wicked punished. Here wise, fool- 
ish, good, and wicked, though Adjectives, are used and passed 
as Nouns, because the Nouns to which they relate, not being 



24 THE ADJECTIVE. 

expressed, they represent those classes of objects that are 
denoted by the qualities they express. 

Q. Are Nouns ever used as Adjectives ? 

A. They are often so used. 

Q. Can you give some examples of Nouns being used as- 
Adjectives ? 

A. We took a morning walk. I saw a large corn field. 
Can you pick me a rose bud ? Let us walk in the flower 
garden. He owns a cotton factory. They sailed in the 
Liverpool papket. Here, morning, corn, rose, flower, cotton, 
and Liverpool, are all used as Adjectives, because they de- 
scribe the Nouns, walk, field, hud, garden, factory, and packet. 

Q. How may an Adjective easily be distinguished from 
any other part of speech ? 

A. An Adjective may generally be distinguished by ad- 
ding the Noun, thing, to any word ; if the expression make 
sense, the word is an Adjective ; as, a good thing, a bad thing- 
a great thing, a dreadful thing, no thing. 



EXAMPLES. 

In a clear evening, more than a thousand stars can be seen 
with the naked eye. He was incapable of a mean action. 
A gentle current rippled by. He was guilty of a less noble 
action. Three boys were drowned by sliding on the thin 
ice. Perpetual motion has not yet been discovered. O thou 
Omnipotent Jehovah, whose existence is eternal, whose wis- 
dom is perfect. The vain and the proud are liable to fall. 
The best may often err, the bad always do so. The evening 
sky is clear and blue. We are building a woollen factory, 
He sold twenty bushels of clover seed. We saw no enemy 
in our excursion. 



QUESTIONS. 

Which are nouns? Are they proper or common? Of 
what person ? number ? gender ? case ? and why ? Which 
are adjectives? To which class do they belong? What 
degree of comparison? How compared? To what nouns 
do they belong ? What adjectives are used as nouns ? What 
nouns are used as adjectives ? 



25 

LESSON IX, 
THE PRONOUN. 

Q. What is a Pronoun ? 

A. A Pronoun is a word that stands as the representa- 
tive of a noun, and is used to prevent the repetition of the 
noun to which it refers ; as, I saw James, and he (James") 
told me he (James) was going to Boston, and that he (James) 
should return to-morrow. Here, the pronoun, he, is used in- 
stead of James, and thus prevents the too frequent use of that 
noun. 

Q. Into how many classes may Pronouns be divided ? 

A. They are divided into three classes, namely, Per- 
sonal, Relative, and Adjective Pronouns. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS, 

Q. What are Personal Pronouns ? 
A. They are those which always show by their form 
which of the three persons they represent, whether the First, 
the Second, or the Third Person. 

Q. How many Personal Pronouns are there ? 

A. There are five, namely, J, thou, he, she, and it, in the 
singular number ; and we, ye or you, and they, in the plural 
number. 

Q. Do Personal Pronouns always refer to persons '? 

A. They do not. They refer equally to persons, to an- 
imals, and to things ; as, The man said he (the man) would 
call again. The horse that was hurt is dead, for I saw htm 
(the horse) after he (the horse) died. The book is mine, for 
I bought it, (the book,) and intend to keep it (the book) and 
not destroy it (the book). 

Q. How many things or Modifications belong to Per- 
sonal Pronouns ? 

A. Four, namely, Number, Person, Gender, and Case, 

Q. How many Numbers have Pronouns? 

A Like nouns, they have two numbers, the Singular 
and Plural. 

Q. How many persons have Pronouns ? 

A. They have three Persons, the First, the Second, and 
the Third. 



26 PERSONAL PRONOUNS* 

Q. How are the three persons distinguished T 

A, In the singular number, / is the first person, and al- 
ways represents myself as the person speaking. Thou or 
you is the Second Person, and denotes the person or animal 
spoken to. He, she. and it, are of the Third Person, and de- 
note the person, animal, or thing spoken of. In the plural 
number, we is the first person, ye or you is the second, and 
they is the third person. 

Q. Are any of the Personal Pronouns varied to designate 
the different genders ? 

A. The third person singular, only, is varied to denote 
the genders. He is masculine, she is feminine, and it is- neu- 
ter. The other persons, namely, I, we, ye or you, and they, 
are the same in all the genders. 

Q. How many Cases have Pronouns 1 

A. Like nouns, they have three Cases, the Nominative* 
the Possessive, and the Objective. 

Q. What do you understand by declining a noun or pro- 
noun ? 

A. To decline a noun or pronoun, is to give the several 
variations of the word, necessary to adapt it to any case in 
which it is proper it should be placed in a sentence^ 

Q. How is the First Personal Pronoun declined ? 

A. Singular. Plural. 

Nominative I Nominative We 

Possessive My or Mine Possessive Our or Ours 

Objective Me Objective Us 

Q. How is the Second Person declined ? 

A. Singular. Plural. 

Nominative Thou Nominative Ye or You 

Possessive Thy or Thine Possessive Your or Yours 

Objective Thee Objective You 

Q. How is the Third Person, masculine gender, declined ? 

A. Singular. Plural. 

Nominative He Nominative They 

Possessive His Possessive Their or Theirs 

Objective Him Objective Them 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 07 

Q. How is the Third Person, feminine gender, declined » 
A. Singular. PIumL 

Nominative She Nominative Thev 

Possessive Her or Hers Possessive Their or Theirs 
Objects* Her Objective Them 

Q. How is the Third Person, neuter gender, declined ? 
A. Singular. Plural. 

Nominative It Nominative Thev ' 

o5£T if SP"?** Th ^r Theirs 

uojective It Objective Them 

t JL/?h V* 5 the di f rent Words ' or the differe "t termina- 
tions of the Possessive Case, as, my, mine ; her, hers • your 
yours, used in distinction from each other ? ' 7 ' 

A. The possessives, my, thy, her, our, your, and their are 
a ways used when the noun, which thev possess is expressed- 
Mendi ' thy PSn ' hGr Slat6 ' ° Ur h °" se ' Jour brotherS 

yolJn h et:;,zr s ^ es ' nine ' mne > *** *** 

h P t™ They , are always used when the n°u°. to which thev 
andTat 1 ^^ 1 ^' ^ UnderSt0od '• as ' This » 4S, 
is to sb p !.' + , h ' S 1S /° Mr Pe "' and that is »»'»«• This 
nrtyourT ^ that » ^ TheSe are ^ a P^> and 

Q. How is the possessive his used 1 
belong 1S USed the same - whether the noun to which it 
Sto ITS' °- T de , rst ood; as, This is my knife, and 

O Wh k hlS ? & * knife ' and th at is mine. 

not, ZrJei:;^ifr d sd ^ are added * ** 

my t r ,arthSvS mpound personai p ~'- •* 

ive A c ,se r -m e d T 7' ^ &re never used in the posse*. 
ecti v ; c 'as es tI if ^ '."?" in the ^native and ob- 
and nlur^l n ,r y Vamt,0n the y admit > * the singular 

Sliffil . ' f ' myS f ,f ' herseI/ "' himse]f ' and yourself £ the 
Jgar; and ourselves, yourselves, and themselves, in the 



28 THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 

Q. Why are the Compound Pronouns used instead of the 

Simple Pronouns ? . 

A. They are used to give a greater emphasis, or to de- 
note a more emphatical distinction of the pronouns ; as, 1 
myself will attend to it. We ourselves are responsible tor 
the act, and not you. If he goes, himself, the business will 
be attended to. _ ;-•'-, . 

Q. In what other way are the Compound Pronouns used ! 

A. They are often used to express reciprocal action, or 
an action that terminates on the agent or doer of the act; as, 
He injures himself. She admires herself. We did not hurt 
them, they hurt themselves. 

EXAMPLES. 

He need not deny the deed, for I saw him do it, myself. 
James and I were present, and saw it, ourselves. John and 
James have arrived from Boston; they came in the cars, yes- 
terdav. I give my hand and my heart to this vote. He 
was a harsh overseer. They have done themselves a great 
injury. This is an elegant flower ; where did you get it f 

QUESTIONS. 

Which are the nouns ? Their person, number, gender, and 
case? What adjectives? What degree of comparison ? lo 
what nouns do they belong ? How compared ? What pro- 
nouns ? What person, number, case ? How is each declined? 
To what nouns do they refer ? And such other questions as 
may be thought proper by the teacher. 



LESSON X. 
THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 

Q. What are Relative Pronouns ? 

A Thev are words, which, like pronouns, refer to some 
noun, which they represent and for which they stand, and 
also combine in their use both the nature and force of a pro- 
noun and connective word, or conjunction ; as, The bird, 
which sang so sweetly, is flown. You, who were dead, hath 



THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 29 

he quickened* Here, the Relatives which, and who, refer to 
birds, and you, as antecedents, and also serve to connect two 
sentences; being the same as saying, The bird sang sweetly, 
but the bird is flown. You were dead, but he hath quick- 
ened you. 

Q. How many kinds of Relative Pronouns are there ? 

A. There are two kinds, Simple, and Compound. 

Q. Which are the Simple Relatives ? 

A. They are who, which, that, and as. 

Q. What modifications belong to Relative Pronouns ? 

A. They have person, number, gender, and case, like 
nouns, and pronouns. 

Q. Are the Relatives varied to express the different per- 
sons, numbers, genders, and cases ? 

A. They are varied in the cases, but neither of them is 
varied to express the different persons, numbers, or genders ; 
as, 



I 
We 

You 
He 

She 
Theyj 



Who 

\ or 
That 



saw it, cannot forget it. 
heard it, must remember it. 
did not hear it, may doubt it* 
hid it, can also find it. 
made it, can identify it. 
^will not believe, are blinded. 
Here, the Relatives who, or that, refer equally to all the 
pronouns, without respect to number, person, or gender. 
Q. What is who applied to ? 

A. Who is always applied to persons, and to nothing 
else ; as, the man who, the lady who, the king who. 
Q. What is which applied to ? 

A. Which is applied to animals, and to things without 
life ; as, The horse icliich he rode. The fishes which he 
caught. The house which he built. 

Q. What is that applied to, and how is it used ? 
A. That, as a Relative, is applied either to persons, Id 
animals, or to things without life, and is often used to prevent 
repeating the Relatives, who, and icliich; as, The man, or the 
woman, that I saw. The birds that fly in the air. The trees 
that blossom so sweetly. Here, the Relative that, refers 
equally to the nouns, man, woman, birds, and trees. 
Q. Is that always a Relative Pronoun ? 
A. It is not. It is a Relative only when it supplies the 
place of who, or which; as, He that (who) is wise. The house 



30 THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 

that (which) he built. " Blessed are they that (who) mourn," 

Q. When is the word as used as a Relative Pronoun, and 
to what is it applied ? 

A, As is a Relative when it follows such, and is also ap- 
plied either to persons, to animals, or to things ; as, James is 
such a scholar as I like. These are such birds as we read 
of in our natural history. This is just such a book as I 
wanted. Here, as is a Relative, and relates equally to schol- 
ar, birds, and books, as its antecedents. 

Q. How are the Relative Pronouns declined in the cases ? 

A. They are the same in both numbers, and are thus 
declined. 

Nominative Who Nominative Which Nominative That 
Possessive Whose Possessive Whose Possessive Whose 
Objective Whom Objective Which Objective That 

N. B. The possessive case, whose, may be applied as a 
relative, to any noun or pronoun, denoting either persons, 
animals, places, or things ; as, The elephant, whose sagacity 
is so wonderful, is the noblest of animals. The tree that 
blossomed so beautifully, and ivhose fruit was so delicious, is 
blown down by the wind. I have seen the lofty Chimborazo, 
whose towering summit is covered with eternal snow. Here, 
the possessive, ivhose, is applied equally to the elephant, the 
tree, and to the mountain, Chimborazo. 

Q. W^hich are the Compound Relative Pronouns ? 

A. They are what, ivhatever, whatsoever, whichever, which- 
soever, whoever, whosever, whosoever, whosesoever, whomever, 
and whomsoever. 

Q. Why are these called Compound Relatives ? 

A. Because they include both the antecedent, and rela- 
tive, and comprehend two distinct words. 

Q. What two words are comprehended in the Compounds 
what, ivhatever, and whatsoever ? 

A. That which, or the thing which ; as, You may have 
what you want, or whatever you want; that is, that which you 
want, or the thing, or any thing, which you want. 

Q. What is comprehended in the Compounds, whoever, 
and whosoever ? 

A. They include he who; or she who; as, Whoever or who- 
soever studies, will acquire information; that is, he who stud- 
ies, or she who studies, will acquire information. 



THE ADJECTIVE PRONOUN. 31 

Q. What does whomever, and whomsoever, include? 

A. They include him whom, her whom, those whom, or 
them whom ; as, You may give it to ivhomever or to whomso- 
ever you please ; that is, to him or her whom you please ; or 
to those whom or to them whom you please. 

Q. What are who, which, and what, called, when they are 
used in asking questions ? 

A. They are called Interrogative Pronouns ; as, Who 
did this? What did }^ou say ? Which of you saw it ? Here, 
who, which, and what, are Interrogative Pronouns. 

EXAMPLES. 

The vices which we should especially avoid, are those 
which do most easily beset us. He is the man who has im- 
proved his privileges, and who will reap the reward. The 
young", the healthy, and the prosperous, should not presume 
on their advantages. The scholar's good behavior will se- 
cure the teacher's approbation. What can I do to gain his 
friendship ? Whoever says that, says falsely. For whom- 
soever that is intended, it is a noble gift. They who love 
virtu?, and who practice benevolence,, will surely be rewarded. 

QUESTIONS. 

Which are the nouns ? Their person ? number ? gender 1 
and case? Why? What adjectives ? What degree of com- 
parison? How compared ? What pronouns? Describe them. 
What relatives ? Simple or compound ? To what noun do 
they refer ? What case ? and why ? 



LESSON XI. 
THE ADJECTIVE PRONOUN. 

Q. What are Adjective Pronouns ? 

A. They are such definitive words as may either be 
joined to the noun to which they belong, or may represent it, 
understood ; as, Some men are happy, while others are mis- 
erable. Here, some, and others, are both Adjective Pronouns; 
some is joined to the noun, men ; and others represents the 
noun, men, understood. 



32 THE ADJECTIVE PRONOUN. 

Q. How are Adjective Pronouns divided 1 

A. They are divided into three classes, namely, Demon- 
strative, Distributive, and Indefinite. 

Q, What are Demonstrative Adjective Pronouns ? 

A. They are such as precisely point out the person, place, 
or thing, to which they refer. 

Q. Which are they ? 

A. They are this, that, these, those, both, same, former, 
and latter ; as, That book is John's, but this is mine. These 
pens are good, but those are bad. Both boys deserve praise. 
The person was pointed out to me, and I am sure this is the 
same man. Vice and virtue are opposites; the former (vice) 
leads to ruin, the latter (virtue) will conduct us to happiness. 

Q. What are Distributive Adjective Pronouns ? 

A. They are those that denote the persons or things that 
make up a collection, or number, as taken separately, or indi- 
vidually. 

Q. Which are they ? 

A. They are each, every, either, and neither ; as, Each 
moment, as it passes, should admonish every man of the un- 
certainty of life. Either of them would have answered my 
purpose, but you sent me neither. 

Q. What are Indefinite Adjective Pronouns ? 

A. They are those that do not designate the persons or 
things to which they belong, but refer to them in a general 
and unlimited manner. 

Q. Which are they ? 

A. They are, some, one, any, other, another, none, few, 
oil, such, much, and many ; as, One of the men was taken, 
but the other escaped. Many men are rich, but few are sat- 
isfied, I saw all the soldiers ; some of them were wounded. 
Other persons were invited, but none came. Here, one, other, 
many > few, all, some, and none, are Indefinite Pronouns, be- 
cause they do not point out the particular persons to which 
they relate, but speak of them in general terms. 

Q. Are the Adjective Pronouns ever used as nouns ? 

A. They are always used as nouns when the subjects to 
which they relate are not expressed, but understood ; as, All 
men seek happiness, but few obtain it. Some scholars improve 
their opportunities, while others neglect them. Here, few, and 
others are used as nouns, because the nouns, men, and scholars. 
to which they relate, are not expressed, but understood. 



THE VERB. 33 

Q. Are any of the Adjective Pronouns declined in the 
cases ? 

A. Some of them are, though they are varied only in the 
Possessive Case, the Nominative and Objective Cases of all, 
being the same in both numbers. 

Q. Which of the Adjective Pronouns are declined? 

A. They are the following, and are thus declined ? 

Nom. One Norn, Other Nom. Others Nom. Another 
Pass. One's Poss. Other's Poss. Others' Poss. Another's 
Obj. One Obj. Other Obj. Others Obj. Another 

Nom. Former Nofn. Latter Nom. Either Nom. Neither 
Poss. Former's Poss. Latter's Poss. Either's Poss. Neither's 
Obj. Former Obj. Latter Obj. Either Obj. Neither 

N. B. Some others of the Adjective Pronouns may be 
occasionally used in the possessive case, but not with elegance 
of expression. 

EXAMPLES. 

One has a right to defend one's own house. John and 
James are brothers ; the former's house was burned, the lat- 
ter's was saved. None have a right to trespass on others' 
privileges. Both signed the obligation, though either's name 
is a sufficient guarantee. They all came, but neither's pres- 
ence was desirable. 

QUESTIONS. 

Wh'ch are the adjective pronouns? To what class does 
each h -long ? To what noun does each refer ? Is it ex- 
pressed, or understood ? Which are used as nouns ? In what 
case is each ? 



LESSON XIL 
THE VERB. 

Q. What is a Verb ? 

A. A Verb is a word that expresses the action or being 
of some person, place, or thing, or the being acted upon by 
some person, or thing ; as, John runs. Runs is a vei% and 



34 



THE VERB, 



expresses an action performed by John. Charles and Henry 
are here. Are is a verb, and expresses the being, or exist- 
ence, of Charles and Henry. James is hurt. Is hurt is a 
verb, and signifies that James is or has been acted upon by 
some person, or thing. 

Q. Under how many and what principal divisions may 
Verbs be considered ? 

A. They are considered under three particular divisions. 
1. Their Use. 2. Their Form. 3. Their Signification. 
Q. How are Verbs divided as respects their Use ? 
A. They are divided into Principal Verbs, and Auxil- 
iary Verbs. 

Q. What do you understand by a Principal Verb T 
A. A Principal Verb is a word that expresses what is 
said of the subject, or what is done by the agent, or actor ; 
as, James loves Henry. John spoke the truth. They came 
yesterday. Here, loves, spoke, and came, are Principal Verbs, 
and express what is said of, or done by, their agents, James, 
John, and they. 

Q. What are Auxiliary Verbs 1 

A. They are those words that are used to place the Prin- 
cipal Verbs in any particular mode, or tense, in order to 
specify more definitely the time and manner in which an action 
has been or is to be performed ; as, I have written the letter. 
Here, the word have is an Auxiliary Verb, and is used to show 
that the action is completed. I shall write a letter. Here, shall 
is an Auxiliary, and is used to show that the action is not yet 
performed, but is to be done in some future time. 
Q. Which are the Auxiliary Verbs ? 
A. They are, do, be, have, has, had, shall, will, may, can, 
might, could, would, shou ; d, and must. 

Q. Are any of the Auxiliary Verbs ever used as Princi- 
pal Verbs ? 

A. Do, be, and have, are Principal Verbs when they are 
used to denote the action or being of the agent. 

Q. How are Verbs divided as respects their Form ? 
A. They are divided into two Classes, Regular, and Ir- 
regular. 

Q. What do you understand by a Regular Verb ? 
A. It is a Verb that has a regular conjugation ; that is, 
one that has its Imperfect Tense and Perfect Participle always 
ending in ed ; as, love, loved, loved. 



THE VERB. 



35 



Q. What is meant by the Conjugation of a Verb ? 

A. To Conjugate a Verb is to name the Present Tense, 
the Imperfect Tense, and the Perfect Participle; as, Present, 
demand, Imperfect, demanded, Participle, demanded; Present, 
define, Imperfect, defined, Participle, defined. 

Q. Can you Conjugate the following regular Verbs? 



Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perfect Participle 


Abate 


Abated 


Abated 


Abandon 


Abandoned 


Abandoned 


Abduct 


Abducted 


Abducted 


Abound 


Abounded 


Abounded 


Account 


Accounted 


Accounted 


Accommodate 


Accommodated 


Accommodated 


Accumulate 


Accumulated 


Accumulated 


Banter 


Bantered 


Bantered 


Beguile 


Beguiled 


Beguiled 


Besmear 


Besmeared 


Besmeared 


Confine 


Confined 


Confined 


Consign 


Consigned 


Consigned 


Delight 


Delighted 


Delighted 


Enlighten 


Enlightened 


Enlightened 


Fancy 


Fancied 


Fancied 


Germinate 


Germinated 


Germinated 


Humiliate 


Humiliated 


Humiliated 


Operate 


Operated 


Operated 


Perpetuate 


Perpetuated 


Perpetuated 


Ruminate 


Ruminated 


Ruminated 



Q. What are Irregular Verbs ? 

A. They are those Verbs whose conjugation is not regu- 
lar, or whose Imperfect Tense and Perfect Participle do not 
end in ed. 

Q. How do Irregular Verbs end ? 

A. Their endings are various. They generally end in 
d. e, ?i, or t. Some few end in g 9 and k. 

Q. Into how many Classes are Irregular Verbs divided ? 

A. They are divided into three Classes, First, Second, 
and Third. 

Q. How is the First Class distinguished ? 

A. The First Class consists of those Verbs that have their 
Present Tense, their Imperfect Tense, and their Perfect Par- 
ticiple, all alike. 



36 



THE VERB. 



Q. Can you Conjugate the following Verbs, comprising 

THE FIRST CLASS OF IRREGULAR VERBS? 



Present, 


Imperfect. Participle. 


Present. 


Imperfect. 


Participle 


Beset 


Beset 


Beset 


Let 


Let 


Let 


Bet 


Bet 


Bet 


Put 


Put 


Put 


Bewet 


Bewet 


Bewet 


Read 


Read 


Read 


Bit 


Bit 


Bit 


Rid 


Rid 


Rid 


Blurt 


Blurt 


Blurt 


Set 


Set 


Set 


Burst 


Burst 


Burst 


Shed 


Shed 


Shed 


Cast 


Cast 


Cast 


Shred 


Shred 


Shred 


Cost 


Cost 


Cost 


Shut 


Shut 


Shut 


Cut 


Cut 


Cut 


Slit 


Slit 


Slit 


En rapt 


En rapt 


En rapt 


Split* 


Split 


Split 


Forecast Forecast 


Forecast 


Spread 


Spread 


Spread 


Hit 


Hit 


Hit 


Sweat 


Sweat 


Sweat 


Hurt 


Hurt 


Hurt 


Thrust 


Thrust 


Thrust 


Knit 


Knit 


Knit 


Wet 


Wet 


Wet 



Q. How do you distinguish the Second Class of Irregular 
Verbs ? 

A. The Second Class consists of those that have their 
Imperfect Tense and Perfect Participle alike, but both differ- 
ent from the Present Tense. 

Q. Can you Conjugate the following Verbs, comprising 

THE SECOND CLASS OF IRREGULAR VERBS? 



Present. 


Imperfect. Participle. 


Present* 


Imperfect. 


Parti cip 


Abide 


Abode 


Abode 


Cleave 


Cleft 


Cleft 


Bend 


Bent 


Bent 


Cling 


Clung 


Clung 


Bereave 


Bereft* 


Bereft* 


Creep 


Crept 


Crept 


Beseech 


Besought 


Besought 


Deal 


Dealt 


Dealt 


Bind 


Bound 


Bound 


Dwell 


Dwelt 


Dwelt 


Bleed 


Bled 


Bled 


Feed 


Fed 


Fed 


Breed 


Bred 


Bred 


Feel 


Felt 


Felt 


Bring 


Brought 


Brought 


Fight 


Fought 


Fought 


Build 


Built* 


Built* 


Find 


Found 


Found 


Buy 


Bought 


Bought 


Flee 


Fled 


Fled 


Catch 


Caught 


Caught 


Fling 


Flung 


Flung 


Chide 


Chid 


Chid or) 
Chiden 5 


Get 
Gild 


Got 
Gilt* 


Got 
Gilt* 



THE VERB. 



37 



Present. Imperfect. Participle. 



Gird 

Grind 

Hang 

Have 

Hear 

Hide 

Hold 

Keep 

Lay 

Lead 

Leave 

Lend 

Lose 

Make 

Meet 

Pay 

Rend 

Ring 

Say 

Seek 

Sell 

Send 

Shine 

Shoe 

Shoot 

Shrink 

Sing 



Girt* 

Ground 

Hung 

Had 

Heard 

Hid 

Held 

Kept 

Laid 

Led 

Left 

Lent 

Lost 

Made 

Met 

Paid 

Rent 

Rung or 

Rang 

Said 

Sought 

Sold 

Sent 

Shone* 

Shod 

Shot 

Shrunk 

Sung 



Girt* 

Ground 

Hung* 

Had 

Heard 

Hid 

Held 

Kept 

Laid 

Led 

Left 

Lent 

Lost 

Made 

Met 

Paid 

Rent 

Rung 

Said 

Sought 

Sold 

Sent 

Shone* 

Shod 

Shot 

Shrunk 

Sun£ 



Present. Imperfect. Participle. 
Sunk or 
Sank 
Slept 



Sink 



Sleep 

Sling 

Slink 

Speed 

Spend 

Spill 

Spin 

Spring 

Stand 

Stick 

Sting 

Strike 



Sunk 
Slept 



Slung 

Slunk 

Sped 

Spent 

Spilt* 

Spun 

Sprung 

Sprang 

Stood 

Stuck 

Stung 

Struck 



String Strung 
Sweep Swept 



Swim 

Swing 

Teach 

Tell 

Think 

Weep 

Win 

Wind 

Work 

Wring 



Swam 

Swung 

Taught 

Told 

Thought 

Wept 

Won 

Wound 



Slung 

Slunk 

Sped 

Spent 

Spilt* 

Spun 

Sprung 

Stood 

Stuck 

Stung 

Struck 

Stricken 

Strung 

Swept 

Swum 

Swung 

Taught 

Told 

Thought 

Wept 

Won 

Wound 



Wrought Wrought" 



WruDff W 



rung 



N. B. Many of the Verbs that are usually considered as 
Irregular, especially those that are here arranged in the Sec- 
ond and Third Classes, are also frequently used as Regular 
Verbs, making their imperfect tense and perfect participle in 
ed. The learner will therefore take notice, that those Verbs 
marked ( * ), may be used either in a regular or irregular 
form. 

Q. Flow do you distinguish the Third Class of Irregular 
Verbs ? 

A. The Third Class consists of those that have their Pres- 
ent Tense, Imperfect Tense, and Perfect Participle, all dif- 
ferent. 



33 



THE VERB. 



Q, Can you conjugate the following Verbs, comprising 

THE THIRD CLASS OF IRREGULAR VERBS? 



Present. 


Imperfect 


. Participle. 


Present. 


Imperfect. 


Participle. 


Am 


Was 


Been 


Load 


Loaded 


Laden* 


Arise 


Arose 


Arisen 


Mow 


Mowed 


Mown* 


Awake 


Awoke* 


Awaked 


Ride 


Rode 


PJdden 


Bear 


Bore 


Borne 


Rise 


Rose 


Risen 


Bear 


Bare 


Born 


Rive 


Rived 


Riven 


Begin 


Began 


Begun 


Run 


Ran 


Run 


Bid 


Bade 


Bidden 


Saw 


Sawed 


Sawn* 


Bite 


Bit 


Bitten 


See 


Saw 


Seen 


Blow 


Blew 


Blown 


Shake 


Shook 


Shaken 


Break 


Broke 


Broken 


Shape 


Shaped 


Shapen* 


Choose 


Chose 


Chosen 


Shave 


Shaved 


Shaven* 


Cleave 


Clove 


Cloven 


Shear 


Sheared 


Shorn* 


Clothe 


Clothed 


Clad* 


Show 


Showed 


Shown* 


Come 


Came 


Come 


Slay 


Slew 


Slain, 


Crow 


Crew* 


Crowed 


Slide 


Slid 


Slidden 


Dare 


Durst 


Dared 


Smite 


Smote 


Smitten' 


Do 


Did 


Done 


Sow 


Sowed 


Sown* 


Draw 


Drew 


Drawn 


Speak 


Spoke 


Spoken 


Drive 


Drove 


Driven 


Steal 


Stole 


Stolen 


Drink 


Drank 


Drunk 


Stride 


Strode 


Stridden 


Eat 


Ate 


Eaten 


Strive 


Strove 


Striven 


Fall 


Fell 


Fallen 


St row 


Strowed 


Strown* 


Flj 


Flew 


Flown 


Swear 


Swore 


Sworn 


Forget 


Forgot 


Forgotten 


Swell 


Swelled 


Swollen* 


Forsake 


Forsook 


Forsaken 


Take 


Took 


Taken 


Freeze 


Froze 


Frozen 


Tear 


lore 


Torn 


Give 


Gave 


Given 


Thrive 


Throve* 


Thriven* 


Go 


Went 


Gone 


Throw 


Threw 


Thrown 


Grow 


Grew 


Grown 


Tread 


Trod 


Trodden 


Hew 


Hewed 


Hewn* 


Wax 


Waxed 


Waxen* 


Know 


Knew 


Known 


Wear 


Wore 


Worn 


Lade 


Laded 


Laden 


Weave 


Wove 


Woven 


Lie 


Lav 


Lain 


Write 


Wrote 


Written 



EXAMPLES. 

They cut down the grove. They cast anchor in the bay. 
They abode there seven days. The assembly will rise to^ 
morrow. When the sun rises, darkness flees away. Thf 



SIGNIFICATION OF VERBS, 39 

soldiers swum the river. John caught the fish. The bird 
has forsaken her nest. I beseech you to be circumspect. 
Thomas went to Boston. She sings elegantly. Now do you 
go and do your err ami. 

QUESTIONS. 

What nouns ? Describe them. What pronouns ? Describe 
and decline each. What verbs ? Are they regular or ir- 
regular ? To what class does each belong ? How is each 
conjugated ? And such other questions as the teachers may 
think proper. 



LESSON XIII. 
SIGNIFICATION OF VERBS. 

Q. How are Verbs divided as respects their signification? 

A. They are divided into Three Classes, Active, Passive, 
and Neuter. 

Q. What is an Active Verb ? 

A. An Active Verb expresses an action that is done by 
an agent or actor, and that falls or terminates on some object; 
as, I wrote the letter. James bought the slate. Charles reads 
his book. Here, wrote, bought, and reads, express actions that 
pass from the agents, I, James, and Charles, and fall or ter- 
minate on the objects, letter, slate, and look; they are, therefore, 
in the objective case, and governed by those actions. 

Q. W T hat is a Passive Verb ? 

A. A Passive Verb expresses the suffering or receiving 
of an action that is done by some other person or thing, and 
not by the subject, or nominative case ; as, The book was 
written by him. He ivas slain by the enemy. They were 
pursued by the officers. Here, the actions of the Passive 
Verbs, was written, teas slain, and icas pursued, pass backward 
from the agents that perform the actions, and terminate on the 
subjects or nominative case, hook, he, and they. 

Q. What plain, familiar distinction, can you make between 
an Active and a Passive Verb? 

A. An Active Verb has its agent, or doer, always in the 
nominative case, and the person or thing on which the action 



40 MODIFICATIONS OF VERBS. 

falls always in the objective case, and is governed by the 
Verb. 

Q. How does a Passive Verb differ from this description? 

A. A Passive Verb has its agent or doer always in the 
objective case, and is governed by a preposition ; and the 
person or thing on which the action falls is always in the 
nominative case, and is the sufferer or receiver of the action. 

Q. What is a Neuter Verb ? 

A. A Neuter Verb expresses being, or a state of being, 
and will not admit or govern an objective case after it ; as, 1 
am, they are, he sits, we sleep. Here, the Neuter Verbs, am, 
are, sits, and sleep, express merely being, or a state of being. 

Q. Do not Neuter Verbs sometimes express action ? 

A. They often express the highest degree of action, but 
such action as cannot effect or terminate on an object ; as, 
The horse runs violently. The bird files swiftly. The hur- 
ricane rages most furiously, are all expressive of a high de- 
gree of action, still the action is of that nature, that it does 
not, and cannot effect, or terminate on an object. 

Q. By what simple method can you always distinguish 
an Active, from a Neuter Verb ? 

A. By placing one of the Personal Pronouns, in the Ob- 
jective Case; as, him, her, it, or them, after the verb. If the 
expression makes sense, the Verb is Active. If it does not 
make sense, the Verb is Neuter. 



MODIFICATIONS OF VERBS. 

Q. How many Modifications have Verbs ? 

A. They have four, namely, Number, Person, Time, 
and Mode. 

Q. How many Numbers have Verbs ? 

A. They have two Numbers, the Singular, and the Plu- 
ral ; as, he loves, they love, John writes, the boys write. 

Q. How many Persons have Verbs ? 

A. Verbs have three Persons in each number, called 
First, Second, and Third Persons ; as, 

Singular. Plural. 

First person, I teach First person, We teach 

Second person, Thou teachest Second person, You teach 

Third person, He teaches Third person, They teach 



TIME. 41 

EXAMPLES. 

Prosperity gains friends, adversity tries them. I cannot 
go now, if I would. We shall be happy to see you to-mor- 
row. Shall we see you again before you leave the city ? 
The snow falls rapidly. The wind and the rain beat violent- 
ly. The dog will follow his master. The boy was stung 
by a bee. The stone was thrown by John. The boy, who 
did that deed, should be punished. 

QUESTIONS. 

Which are the articles? the nouns? the adjectives? the pro- 
nouns? the relatives? Describe each. Which are the verbs? 
Are they principal or auxiliary? regular or irregular? how 
conjugated ? Are they active, passive, or neuter ? Are they 
first, second or third persons ? Are they in the singular or 
plural number ? 



LESSON XIV. 
TIME. 

Q. What is meant by Time, as applied to Grammar ? 

A. By Time is understood the particular period at or in 
which any action is performed. 

Q. What is the first and most important division of Time ? 

A. The first grand division of Time is into Past, Pres- 
ent, and Future. 

Q. What do you understand by Past Time ? 

A. By Past Time is meant that portion of time that is 
passed and gone ; as, yesterday, last week, last month, last 
year. 

Q. What is meant by Present Time ? 

A. By Present Time is understood the time that now is, 
or is now passing ; as, now, to-day, this week, this month, 
this year. 

Q. What is meant by Future Time ? 

A. By Future Time is meant that portion of Time not 
yet passed, but which is yet to come ; as, to-morrow, next 
week, next month, next year. 



42 TIME. 

Q. What other division of Time have grammarians 
made, and for what purpose ? 

A. To mark the time of an action more definitely. Time 
is divided into six Tenses, namely, the Present, the Imper- 
fect, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, the First Future, and 
the Second Future. 

Q. How does the Present Tense represent an action? 

A. The Present Tense represents an action, not only 
as passing at the present time, as, he runs, they are here ; 
but it may also represent an action as passing at the time in 
which that event is spoken of, though the time and the event 
may have been long passed ; as, The death and resurrection 
of Christ are spoken of by ancient historians. " And Jesus 
said, O, woman, great is thy faith." 

Q. How does the Imperfect Tense represent an action ? 

A. The Imperfect Tense represents an action or event 
that existed or took place, or that was doing or taking place 
at some period of time that is now passed and gone ; as, We 
saw them yesterday. He was here this morning, but is now 
gone. They ivere preparing for their journey when I ar- 
rived. 

Q. How does the Perfect Tense represent an action ? 

A. The Perfect Tense represents an action as passed 
and completely finished, but as taking place at a time that 
has very recently passed ; and is denoted by the auxiliaries 
have, hast, or has ; as, I have finished my copy. Thou hast 
made a mistake. Charles has said his lesson well. We 
have just arrived from Boston. 

Q. How does the Pluperfect Tense represent an ac- 
tion ? 

A. The Pluperfect Tense represents an action or event 
that had taken place, either at or before the time of some 
other action or event, which is also passed and finished, and 
is denoted by the auxiliary had ; as, I had read the book be- 
fore he sent for it. I had just finished my letter, when he 
called for it. They had made their escape before their de- 
signs were discovered. 

Q. How does the First Future Tense represent an ac- 
tion ? 

A. The First Future Tense represents an action or 
event that will take place hereafter, and may either define 
the time at which the action will take place, or leave that 



TIME. 43 

time indefinite, and is denoted by the auxiliaries shall, and 
will; as, I shall dine, or I shall he dining at. one o'clock. 
They will finish their work next week. We shall attend to 
it in due season. I shall see you again before you leave 
town. 

Q. How does the Second Future Tense represent an 
action ? 

A. The Second Future Tense represents an action or 
event that will have taken place, or transpired, at, or before 
some other future time or event, spoken of in the sentence, 
and is denoted by the double auxiliaries, shall have, and will 
have ; as, I shall have finished my task at, or before, nine 
o'clock. The man will have been hung before his pardon 
will arrive. I shall have learned my lesson by the time for 
recitation. 

Q. What plain, simple distinction, can you make between 
the First Future, and Second Future Tenses? 

A. The First Future represents an action as doing at a 
future time. The Second Future represents an action that 
will be completed at a future time ; as, I shall dine at two 
o'clock, is First Future, and means that at two o'clock, I 
shall be in the act of eating my dinner. I shall have dined 
at two o'clock, is Second Future, and means that at two 
o'clock, I shall have finished the act of dining, and shall be 
ready to attend to any other business. 

examples. 

Charles writes well. I shall see him to-morrow. They 
were here this morning, but have now gone home. I am 
surprised at your negligent attention. You have been blamed 
without a cause. They had heard the news before I arrived. 
We shall have dined at twelve. The boys will have finished 
their task by the time you arrive. I now expect he will 
come to-morrow. 

QUESTIONS. 

Which are the nouns, and pronouns? Describe each in all 
its modifications. What adjectives ? What degree of com- 
parison ? How compared ? What verbs? Are they regular, 
or irregular ? Active, passive, or neuter ? In what tense is 
each ? How is each conjugated ? To what class of irregular 
verbs does each belong? 



44 

LESSON XV. 
MODES. 

Q. What do you understand by the Mode of a Verb ? 

A. By Mode, is meant the particular manner in which 
the being or action of a Verb is represented. 

Q. How many Modes have Verbs ? 

A. They have five Modes, namely, the Infinitive, the 
Imperative, the Potential, the Subjunctive, and the Indic- 
ative. 

THE INFINITIVE MODE. 

Q. How does the Infinitive Mode express an action ? 

A. It expresses an action in a general and unlimited man- 
ner. It is called Infinitive, because it simply expresses the 
signification of the Verb, without limiting it to any person, or 
number, or to any agent, or actor. 

Q. How is the Infinitive Mode distinguished, or known ? 

A. It is always distinguished by the word to, before it, 
either expressed, or understood ; as, To run. To love. Ha 
wants to go. The boys came to play. He wishes to learn. 
Here, the Verbs, run, love, go, play, and learn, are all in the 
Infinitive Mode, having the word to, to denote them, and also 
expressing the action of the Verb, without any limit of per- 
son, or number. 

Q. How many Tenses has the Infinitive Mode ? 

A. It has two Tenses, the Present, and Perfect. 

Q. How are these Tenses formed, or distinguished ? 

A. The Present Tense expresses the simple word or root 
of the Verb, without any auxiliary, or variation of its termi- 
nation. 

Q. How is the Perfect Tense formed ? 

A. It is formed by placing the auxiliary Verb, have, be- 
fore the perfect participle of any Verb ; as, Present, to love ; 
Perfect, to have loved. Present, to write ; Perfect, to have 
written. Present, to teach ; Perfect, to have taught. 

THE IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Q. How does the Imperative Mode express an action ? 
A. It always commands, exhorts, entreats, or permits the 
performance of an action ; as, John, come to me. Charles, 



THE POTENTIAL MODE. 45 

do study your lesson. O thou Supreme Ruler of the universe, 
condescend to hear our supplication. O, yes, let him, or per- 
mit him to go. Here, the Verbs, come, do study, condescend, 
let, and permit, are all in the Imperative Mode, because they 
are used for commanding, intreating and permitting. 

Q. How many Tenses has the Imperative Mode ? 

A. It has but one Tense, which is the Present, because 
no command, entreaty or permission can be made or given in 
any tense but the present 

Q. What will always be the Subject, Agent or Actor of 
a Verb in the Imperative Mode ? 

A. It will always be one of the Personal Pronouns of the 
second person ; as, thou, ye or you, because we cannot com- 
mand, exhort, or entreat any other than a second person. 

Q. What then must always be the Nominative Case to a 
verb in the Imperative Mode ? 

A. It must always be thou, ye or you, either expressed or 
understood ; as, James, recite your lesson ; that is, James, 
recite thou, or recite you, your lesson. Boys, be more care- 
ful ; that is, be ye or you more careful. 

Q. Is any auxiliary or any variation of the verb ever 
required to form or express a verb in the Imperative Mode ? 

A. No variation of the verb is required, nor any auxilia- 
ry, except in making an entreaty the auxiliary do is used be- 
fore the verb ; as, Henry, do study. Thomas, do not hurt 
that boy. John, do be still. 

THE POTENTIAL MODE. 

Q. How does the Potential Mode express an action ? 

A. The Potential Mode expresses the liberty, necessity^ 
obligation, possibility, power, or will of being, or of doing an 
action, and is also used in asking questions. 

Q. What auxiliary verbs are used to denote the Potential 
Mode ? 

A. Can, could, may, might, must, should and would. 

Q. Which of these auxiliary verbs expresses the liberty 
of doing an action ? 

A, May expresses liberty ; as, Yes, you may go. John 
may read. Thomas, you may go home now. May I go ? 

Q. Which auxiliary expresses the necessity of doing an 
action ? 

D* 



46 POTENTIAL MODE. 

A. Must expresses necessity; as, I must be there to-mor- 
row. You must be studious if you mean to learn. Must you 
go so soon ? I must be obeyed. 

Q. Which auxiliaries are expressive of obligation? 

A. Should, and ought, express obligation ; as, you should 
do better. He ought to be more attentive. Ought I to do 
this ? Should I love him who hates me ? 

Q. Which are expressive of possibility ? 

A. May, and might, are used to express possibility ; as, It 
may rain. They may be here to-day. He might have been 
here, but I did not see him. May they not be here yet before 
night ? Might he not come without detection ? 

Q. Which are expressive of power 1 

A. Can, and could, express power; as, Charles can write 
better than Henry. James could do more if he would try. 
Could you read as well as Joseph ? 

Q. Which auxiliary is expressive of will? 

A. Would is used to express the will or willingness of the 
actor ; as, He would do it, though he was warned against it. 
I would oblige you, if I could. Would you go, if you could? 

Q. How many Tenses has the Potential Mode ? 

A. It has four Tenses, namely, the Present, the Imper- 
fect, the Perfect, and the Pluperfect. 

Q. How is the Present Tense of the Potential Mode 
formed ? 

A. By prefixing the auxiliaries, may, can, or must, to the 
simple form of the Verb ; as, You may read. He can write. 
They must go. Can you write ? Must I go now ? 

Q. How is the Imperfect Tense formed ? 

A. By prefixing the auxiliaries might, could, would, or 
should, to the simple Verb; as, I might learn. He could write. 
They would come. She should stay. Could he write? 
Would they come? 

Q. How is the Perfect Tense of this Mode formed ? 

A. By prefixing the double auxiliaries, may have, can 
have, or must have, to the Perfect Participle of any Verb ; 
as, He may have loved. They cannot have written. She 
must have known. Can he have loved ? Must not he have 
been the . e 1 

Q. How is the Pluperfect Tense of this Mode formed ? 

A. By prefixing the double auxiliaries, might have, could 
have, should have, or would have, to the Perfect Participle of 



THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 47 

any Verb ; as, I might have written. He could have learned. 
She ivould have improved. They should have obeyed. Could 
she have learned ? Might I have gone 1 Should she have 
been there ? 

EXAMPLES. 

James, tell Charles to come to me. Henry, you may go 
to school. See if you can learn to read. I should wish to 
be informed when they can come. John, you ought to have 
obeyed your parents. You might have improved your time 
better. Can you write as well as Thomas could at your 
age ? I could not find them. He may have done it, but I 
cannot believe it. He may wish to have it, before you are 
ready to deliver it. O John, look yonder, see those birds; 
can we not catch them ? 

QUESTIONS. 

Which are the nouns, the pronouns, the adjectives? Describe 
each in its modifications of person and number. Which are 
the verbs ? Are they regular or irregular ? Are they in 
the Infinitive, Imperative, or Potential Mode? In what Tense 
is each ? Does it express liberty, power, necessity, will, or 
obligation ? 



LESSON XVI. 
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Q. How does the Subjunctive Mode express an action ? 

A. It expresses an action under some condition, supposi- 
tion, or doubt, and is always preceded by a conjunction ex- 
pressive of doubt, or uncertainty, either expressed or under- 
stood, and always requires another Verb in a different Mode, 
to complete the sense ; as, If you study, you will improve. 
You may be excused, if you will first finish your task. Here, 
the Verbs study, and will finish, are in the Subjunctive Mode, 
and require the other verbs in the sentence to complete the 
sense, the improvement, and excuse, both depending on the 
performance of a previous action. 



48 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Q. Which are the Conjunctions that usually precede the 
Subjunctive Mode 1 

A. They are if, though, although, unless, whether, except, 
and lest ; as, " Though he were dead, yet shall he live again." 
" Except ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish." Unless you 
study your grammar more, you will never understand it. 
Take heed lest ye fall. 

Q. How many Tenses has the Subjunctive Mode f 

A. Six, namely, the Present, Imperfect, Perfect, Pluper- 
fect, First Future, and Second Future Tenses. 

Q. How is the Present Tense of the Subjunctive mode 
formed ? 

A. The simple form of the Verb is only used, without 
any auxiliary ; as, if I love ; unless he writes ; except they 
come. 

Q. How is the Imperfect Tense of this Mode formed ? 

A. No auxiliary is used to form this Tense ; its form is 
found by conjugating the Verb ; as, Present, love ; Imperfect, 
loved. Present, write ; Imperfect, wrote. Present, teach ; 
Imperfect, taught. 

Q. How is the Perfect Tense of this Mode formed 1 

A. By prefixing the auxiliaries, have, hast, or has, to the 
Perfect Participle of any Verb; as, If I have written. Though 
he has taught. Unless thou hast loved. 

Q, How is the Pluperfect Tense of this Mode formed? 

A. By prefixing the auxiliaries, had, or hadst, to the Per- 
fect Participle of any Verb ; as, If I had seen him. Though 
thou hadst been there, thou couidst not have saved him. Un- 
less they had been taught, they could not have known it. 

Q. How is the First Future Tense of this Mode formed ? 

A. By prefixing the auxiliaries, shall, will, or wilt, to the 
simple form of the Verb ; as, If I shall write. If thou wilt 
learn. Unless they shall come. Except he will study he 
cannot improve. 

Q. How is the Second Future Tense of this Mode formed ? 

A. By prefixing the double auxiliaries, shall have, or icill 
have, to the Perfect Participle of any Verb; as, If I shall 
have written. Lest thou wilt have done wrong. Unless they 
shall have seen him. Though he will have done it. 

N. B. In the Subjunctive Mode, the auxiliaries, hast, hadst, 
and wilt, in the second person, and has, in the third person, 
are not generally used by the best writers, but the form of 



THE INDICATIVE MODE. 49 

the first person is continued through the three persons ; as, 
If I have loved. If thou have loved, if he have loved. 
Though I liad been. Though thou had been. Though he 
had been. If I shall be. If thou will be. If he will be. 



THE INDICATIVE MODE. 

Q. How does the Indicative Mode express an action ? 

A. It simply declares, affirms, or denies an action, and is 
used in asking questions ; as, James writes well. I say John 
did do it, for I saw him. I knoic William did not do it, for 
he was not there. Does Henry write ? 

Q. How many Tenses has the Indicative Mode ? 

A. Six, namely, the Present, Imperfect, Perfect, Pluper- 
fect, First and Second Future. 

Q. How is the Present Tense formed ? 

A. The simple form of the Verb is only used, with no 
auxiliary ; as, I love, he writes, they learn, does she read ? 

Q. How is the Imperfect Tense formed and found ? 

A. No auxiliary is prefixed to this tense. Its form is 
found by conjugating the Verbs, as in the Subjunctive Mode; 
as, I loved, he wrote, they learned, did she read ? 

Q. How is the Perfect Tense of this Mode formed? 

A. By prefixing the auxiliaries, have, hast, or has, to the 
Perfect Participle of any Verbs ; as, I have written a letter. 
Thou hast done well. He has recited his lesson. Has he been 
here 1 Have they seen him ? 

Q. How is the Pluperfect Tense formed ? 

A. By prefixing the auxiliaries, had, or hadst, to the Per- 
fect Participle of any Verb ; as, I had read the book. Thou 
hadst written the letter. He hud finished his task. They 
had caught the thief. Had they arrived ? Had you been 
there ? 

Q. How is the First Future Tense of this mode formed ? 

A. By prefixing the auxiliaries, shall, shalt, will, or wilt, 
to the simple form of the Verb ; as, I shall write soon. Thou 
shalt not steal. He will learn. Thou wilt do it to-morrow. 
Will they come to-day ? Shall I call again ? 

Q. How is the Second Future Tense of this Mode 
formed ? 

A. By prefixing the double auxiliaries, shall have, shalt 
have, will have, or wilt have, to the Perfect Participle of any 



50 DETECTIVE VERBS. 

verb ; as, I shall have written the letter. Thou wilt have 
read the book. They will have finished their task. Will 
he have done his task 1 Shall I have performed my duty ? 

EXAMPLES. 

Compassion prompts us to relieve the wants of others. A 
plain understanding is often joined with great worth. You 
may make the attempt, but you cannot perform the act. I 
would accommodate him, if the means were in my power. 
Joseph, tell Edward to come to me. You might have been 
there in time, if you had used more expedition. Has he done 
any thing for his country's honor ? Can you find any trait 
in his character that is to be commended ? By the time they 
will arrive the business will have been finished, I had fin- 
ished my letter when the boy called for it. 

N. B. Let the learner describe, through all their modifi- 
cations, all the parts of speech that have, thus far, been ex- 
plained, namely, the Article, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Ad- 
jective Pronoun, Relative Pronoun, and Verb, with the Mode 
and Tense of each. 



LESSON XVII. 
DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

Q. What are Defective Vekbs ? 

A. Defective Verbs are those that cannot be used in 
all the Tenses or Modes, but are limited, by their significa- 
tion, and want of some of the modifications, to some of the 
Tenses and Modes only. 

Q. Which are the Defective Verbs ? 

A. They are can, could, inay, might, must, shall, should, 
will, would, ought, and quoth, 

Q. How are the Defective Verbs used ? 

A. They are used chiefly as auxiliaries in forming the 
Tenses and Modes of other verbs, except ought, and quoth, 
which are principal verbs. 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 5i 

Q. In what Tenses and Modes are these Defective Verbs 
used ? 

A. Can, may, and must, when used as single auxiliaries, 
are joined to Verbs in the Present Tense of the Potential 
Mode, but when forming the double auxiliaries, can have, may 
have, and must have, they are joined to Verbs in the Perfect 
Tense of the Potential Mode- 

Q. In what Tenses and Modes are could, might, should, 
and would used ? 

A. As single auxiliaries they are joined to Verbs in the 
Imperfect Tense of the Potential Mode; but when forming the 
double auxiliaries, could have, might have, should have, and 
would have, they are joined to Verbs in the Pluperfect Tense 
of the Potential Mode. 

Q. In what Tenses and Modes are shall, and will, used 1 

A. As single auxiliaries they are used to form the First 
Future Tense of the Subjunctive and Indicative Modes; but 
when forming the double auxiliaries, shall have, and will have, 
they are joined to Verbs in the Second Future Tense of the 
Subjunctive and Indicative Modes. 

Q. What does will imply when used in the first person ? 

A. Will, in the first person, implies resolution and deter- 
mination, or simply a promise ; as, I will have my recom- 
pense. I will be obeyed. Here, will implies resolution and 
determination. I will see you again to-morrow. We will 
attend to the business soon. Here, will implies simply a 
promise of doing an act. 

Q. What does will imply in the second and third persons? 

A. In the second and third persons it merely foretells an 
action, or an event ; as, You will find him an agreeable com- 
panion. They will be here soon. She witl improve. 

Q. What does shall express in the first person ? 

A. In the first person it simply foretells an action, or 
event; as, I shall go to New- York. We shall return next 
week. I shall call on him to-morrow. 

Q. What does shall express in the second and third per- 
sons ? 

A. In the second and third persons it expresses a promise, 
command, or threat; as, You shall be rewarded for your 
kindness. They shall have their recompense. Here, shall 
implies a promise. Thou shalt not kill. They shall submit. 
These shall go away. Here, shall expresses a command. If 



52 PARTICIPLES. 

thou commit sin, thou slialt suffer the penalty. In the day 
thou eatest thereof, thou shalt surely die. He who does that, 
shall be branded with infamy. Here, shall expresses a threat. 

Q. In what Tenses and Modes are ought, and quoth, used? 

A. Ought is used only in the Present and Imperfect 
Tenses of the Potential Mode. Quoth is used only in the Im- 
perfect Tense of the Indicative Mode, and is confined to the 
first and third persons, singular ; as, quoth I, quoth he. 

Q. Is ought varied in its conjugation ? 

A. It is not. It is the same in both tenses, and is varied 
only in the second person; as, I ought, thou oughtest, he 
ought. 

Q. If ought is not varied in the tenses, how can you de- 
termine in what tense it is used ? 

A. Its tense is determined by the tense of the Verb that 
follows it. 

Q. How is the tense of ought determined by the Verb that 
follows it? 

A. It is always followed by a Verb in the Infinitive Mode, 
and if that Verb be in the Present Tense, ought will be in the 
Present Tense ; but if the following Verb be in the Perfect 
Tense, ought will then be in the Imperfect Tense ; as, I ought 
to write to my brother. You ought to respect your teacher. 
Here, ought is in the Present Tense. I ought to have written 
to my brother. You ought to have obeyed your teacher, 
Here, ought is in the Imperfect Tense. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Q. What are Participles ? 

A. ParticipAs are derived from Verbs. They are 
called Participles because they often partake of the nature of 
Verbs, Adjectives^ and Nouns ; as, James is building a house. 
The boys are playing at ball. Here, building, and playing, 
are Participles, partaking the nature of a Verb, because they 
express action. We saw an enchanting prospect. They sat 
down on the margin of a running stream. Here, enchanting, 
and running, have the nature of an Adjective, because they 
describe the Nouns, to which they are joined. I love reading, 
and writing. She is fond of singing. Here, reading, writing, 
and singing, have the nature of Nouns, because they express 
the name of the action spoken of. 



PARTICIPLES, 53 

1 



Q. How many kinds or classes of Participles are there 
A. There are three Participles derived from every perfect 
verb, and they are, therefore, considered under three classes, 
namely, the Present, Perfect, and Compound Perfect; as, from 
the following verbs, are derived the Participles annexed to 
them. 



Verbs. 


Present Par. 


Perfect Par. 


Compound Perfect. 


Love 


Loving 


Loved 


Having loved 


Read 


Reading 


Read 


Having read 


Teach 


Teaching 


Taught 


Having taught 


Write 


Writing 


Written 


Having written 



Q. What does the Present Participle express, and how is 
it formed ? 

A. It always expresses the continuance of an action, or 
being, and is formed by annexing ing to the simple form of 
the verb ; as, run, running; walk, walking. She is singing. 
They are playing. 

Q. What does the Perfect Participle express, and how 
does it end ? 

A. It expresses an action, or being, as past and finished, 
and ends according to the regular or irregular conjugation of 
the verb, from which it is derived, and is always found by 
conjugating the verb. 

Q. How is the Perfect Participle generally used ? 

A. It is generally used in a passive sense, and has the 
nature of an adjective ; as, He was a learned man. They 
have found the stolen goods. He had a dagger, concealed 
under his cloak. 

Q. What does the Compound Perfect Participle denote, 
and how is it formed ? 

A. It denotes the completion of an action, or being, pre- 
vious to some other action or event, and is formed by prefix- 
ing having, to the Perfect Participle of any verb ; as, having 
loved, having been, having seen. Having finished my task, 
I sat down to rest. Having sold his estate, he left the town. 

EXAMPLES. 

I am weary of hearing complaints. This place gives a 
charming prospect of the surrounding country. You ought 
to be more punctual in your engagements. He may yet 

It 



54 CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

learn the folly of his ways. Can you contemplate such a 
prospect without admiring its beauty ? He is a learned and 
worthy man, and by his untiring efforts in performing' his 
duty, he is gaining a deserved reward. He ought to have 
done that work before. He must have known that before. 
He will have learned better in time. 

QUESTIONS. 

Which are the verbs ? Are they regular, irregular, or de- 
fective? In what tenses, and modes are they ? Do the 
auxiliaries express liberty, power, will, or obligation ? Which 
are the participles ? Of which class ? In what nature is 
each used ? 



LESSON XVIII. 
CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

Q. What is meant by the Conjugation of a Verb ? 

A. The full Conjugation of a Verb is the proper arrange- 
ment of it in the different Voices, Numbers, Persons, Tenses, 
and Modes. 

Q. What do you understand by Voice, as it is applied 
to Verbs ? 

A. Voice denotes the particular manner of expressing an 
action, and shows the immediate connexion or relation that 
exists between the subject, or nominative case, and the ac- 
tion expressed by the Verb. 

Q. Under how many Voices are Verbs considered ? 

A. Under two, the Active Voice, and the Passive Voice. 

Q. How does the Active Voice represent an action ? 

A. It always represents the action as being performed 
by the subject, or nominative case, and not by any other 
agent or actor ; as, I read, lie writes. 

Q. How does the Passive Voice express an action ? 

A. It always represents the Nominative Case as the ob- 
ject that receives the action, or that is acted upon by some 
other person or agent; as, I am arrested. He was bruised by 
a fall. The snow is melted by the heat of the sun. 



55 

ACTIVE VOICE. 
THE INFINITIVE MODE, 

QUESTIONS . 



How does the Infinitive Mode express an action ? How is 
it distinguished ? How many tenses has it ? How are these 
tenses distinguished ? How are the following verbs expressed 
in this Mode ? 



Verbs. 


Present. 


Perfect. 


Be 


To be 


To have been 


Have 


To have 


To have had 


Teach 


To teach 


To have taught 


Love 


To love 


To have loved 



How are the following verbs, viz.: write, read, seek, buy, 
confine, demand? and such others as may be thought proper. 



THE IMPERATIVE MODE. 

QUESTIONS. 

How does the Imperative Mode express an action ? How 
many tenses has the Imperative Mode ? What will always 
be the subject, agent, or actor ? What then will always be 
the nominative case to a verb in the Imperative Mode ? 
How are the following verbs expressed in this Mode ? 

Verbs. Singular. Plural. 

Be Be thou or do thou be Be ye or you or do you be 

Have Have thou or do thou have Have you or do you have 

Teach Teach thou or do thou Teach ye or you or do you 

teach teach 

Love Love thou or do thou love Love you or do you love 

How are write, read, seek, buy, confine, demand, engage ? 



THE POTENTIAL MODE. 

QUESTIONS. 

How does the Potential Mode express an action ? What 
auxiliary verbs are used to denote this Mode 1 How many 
tenses has it, and which are they ? 



56 THE POTENTIAL MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
QUESTIONS. 

How is the Present Tense of this Mode formed ? How is 
the verb, to love, conjugated in the Potential Mode, Present 
Tense ? 

Persons Singular Persons Plural 

1 I may love 1 We may love 

2 Thou mayst love 2 Ye or you may love 

3 He may love 3 They may love 

With the auxiliary can ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I can love 1 We can love 

2 Thou canst love 2 Ye or you can love 

3 He can love 3 They can love 

With the auxiliary must ? 

Singular . Plural 

1 I must love 1 We must love 

2 Thou must love 2 Ye or you must love 

3 He must love 3 They must love 

Q. Can you conjugate it, negatively, with each of the 
auxiliaries ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I may not love 1 We may not love 

2 Thou mayst not love 2 Ye or you may not love 

3 He may not love 3 They may not love 

With the auxiliaries can, and must, in the same manner ? 

Q. Can you conjugate it interrogatively with each auxil- 
iary ? 

Singular Plural 

1 May I love 1 May we love 

2 Mayst thou love 2 May ye or you love 

3 May he love 3 May they love 

Q. Can you conjugate the following verbs affirmatively, 
negatively, and interrogatively, with each of the auxiliaries, 
viz.: be, have, teach, write, read, seek, confine, engage ? 



THE POTENTIAL MODE. 57 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 
QUESTIONS. 

How does the Imperfect Tense represent an action ? How- 
ls the Imperfect Tense of the Potential Mode formed ? How 
is the verb, to love, conjugated in the Imperfect Tense ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I could love 1 We could love 

2 Thou couldst love 2 Ye or you could love 

3 She could love 3 They could love 

With the auxiliary might ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I might love 1 We might love 

2 Thou mightst love 2 Ye or you might love 

3 She might love 3 They might love 

With the auxiliaries should, and icould ? 
Q. Can you conjugate it negatively ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I could not love 1 We could not love 

2 Thou couldst not love 2 Ye or you could not love 

3 She could not love 3 They could not love 

With the auxiliaries might, should, and ivould ? 
Q. Can you conjugate it interrogatively ? 

Singular Plural 

1 Could I love 1 Could we love 

2 Couldst thou love 2 Could ye or you love 

3 Could she love 3 Could they love 

With the auxiliaries might, should, and would ? 

Q. Can you conjugate the following verbs, affirmatively, 
negatively, and interrogatively, with each auxiliary, viz.: be, 
have, teach, write, read, seek, buy, endure ? 

PERFECT TENSE. 
QUESTIONS. 

How does the Perfect Tense represent an action ? How 
is the Perfect Tense of the Potential Mode formed? 

E* 



58 THE POTENTIAL MODE. 

How is the verb, to love, conjugated in the Perfect Tense ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I may have loved 1 We may have loved 

2 Thou mayst have loved 2 Ye or you may have loved 

3 He may have loved 3 They may have loved 

With the auxiliary can have ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I can have loved 1 We can have loved 

2 Thou canst have loved 2 Ye or you can have loved 

3 He can have loved 3 They can have loved 

With the auxiliary must have ? 

Also, negatively and interrogatively, together with the fol- 
lowing verbs, viz.: be, have, teach, write, read, seek, buy, 
confine, demand, engage. 



PLUPERFECT TENSE. 
QUESTIONS. 

How does the Pluperfect Tense represent an action ? How 
is the Pluperfect Tense of the Potential Mode formed ? How 
is the verb, to love, conjugated in the Pluperfect Tense? 

Singular Plural 

1 I might have loved 1 We might have loved 

2 Thou mightst have loved 2 Ye or you might have 

loved 

3 He might have loved 3 They might have loved 

With the auxiliary could have ? 

Singular Plural 

•1 I could have loved 1 We could have loved 

2 Thou couldst have loved 2 Ye or you could have loved 

3 He could have loved 3 They could have loved 

With the auxiliary, should have, negatively? 

Singular Plural 

1 I should not have loved 1 We should not have loved 

2 Thou shouldst not have 2 Ye or you should not have 

loved loved 

3 She should not have loved 3 They should not have loved 



THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 59 

With the auxiliary would have, interrogatively? 

Singular Plural 

1 Would I have loved 1 Would we have loved 

2 Wouldst thou have loved 2 Would ye or you have 

loved 

3 Would she have loved 3 Would they have loved 
Can you conjugate the following verbs, affirmatively, neg- 
atively and interrogatively, viz.: be, have, teach, write, read, 
seek, buy, confine, demand, engage ? 



LESSON XIX. 
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

QUESTIONS. 

How does the Subjunctive Mode express an action ? Which 
are the conjunctions that usually precede the Subjunctive 
Mode ? How many Tenses has the Subjunctive Mode ? 

PRESENT TENSE. 

QUESTIONS. 

How is the Present Tense of the Subjunctive Mode formed 1 
How is the verb, to love, conjugated in the Subjunctive Mode, 
Present Tense ? 

Singular Plural 

1 If I love 1 If we love 

2 If thou love 2 If ye or you love 

3 If he love 3 If they love 

How is the verb, to be, conjugated in the Present Tense ? 
Singular Plural 

1 Unless I be 1 Unless we be 

2 Unless thou be 2 Unless ye or you be 

3 Unless it be 3 Unless they be 

Conjugate the verb, have, with the conjunction, except 
Singular Plural 

1 Except I have 1 Except we have 

2 Except thou have 2 Except you have 

3 Except it have 3 Except they have 



80 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE* 

Q. In what Tenses and Modes is the auxiliary do, used, 
and for what purpose ? 

A. It is used in the Present and Imperfect Tenses of the 
Subjunctive and Indicative Modes, to give more energy or 
emphasis to a declaration, or to ask a question. 

Q. How is the verb, to write, conjugated with the auxil- 
iary do, in the Present Tense of this Mode ? 

Singular Plural 

1 If I do write 1 If we do write 

2 If thou do write 2 If you do write 

3 If he do write 3 If they do write 

Conjugate the verb, teach, negatively. 

Singular Plural 

1 Though I do not teach 1 Though we do not teach 

2 Though thou do not teach 2 Though you do not teach 

3 Though he do not teach 3 Though they do not teach 

Q. Can you conjugate read, seek, buy, confine, demand? 
and such other verbs as may be thought proper. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 
QUESTIONS. 

How does the Imperfect Tense represent an action ? How 
is the Imperfect Tense formed or found ? How is the verb, 
to love, conjugated in the Imperfect Tense. 

Singular Plural 

1 If I loved 1 If we loved 

2 If thou loved 2 If you loved 

3 If he loved 3 If they loved 

Q. How do you conjugate the verb, love, with the auxil- 
iary, do, in the Imperfect Tense ? 

Singular Plural 

1 If I did love 1 If we did love 

2 If thou did love 2 If you did love 

3 If he did love 3 If they did love 

Q. How do you conjugate the verb, to be, with the con- 
junction, unless ? 

Singular Plural 

1 Unless I were 1 Unless we were 

2 Unless thou wert 2 Unless you were 

3 Unless he were 3 Unless they were 



THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 61 

Q. How do you conjugate the verb, to have, with the 
conjunction, except ? 

Singular Plural 

1 Except I had 1 Except we had 

2 Except thou had 2 Except you had 

3 Except he had 3 Except they had 

Conjugate the verbs, write, read, seek, teach, buy, confine, 
demand. 

PERFECT TENSE. 
QUESTIONS. 

How does the Perfect Tense represent an action ? How 
is the Perfect Tense of the Subjunctive Mode formed ? How 
is the verb, to love, conjugated in the Perfect Tense? 

Singular Plural 

1 If I have loved 1 If we have loved 

2 If thou have loved 2 If you have loved 

3 If he have loved 3 If they have loved 

Q. How do you conjugate the verb, to be, with the con- 
junction, unless ? 

Singular Plural 

1 Unless I have been 1 Unless we have been 

2 Unless thou have been 2 Unless you have been 

3 Unless he have been 3 Unless they have been 

Q. How do you conjugate the verb, to have, with the 
conjunction, except ? 

Singular Plural 

1 Except I have had 1 Except we have had 

2 Except thou have had 2 Except you have had 

3 Except he have had 3 Except they have had 

Conjugate the verbs, write, read, seek, teach, buy, confine, 
demand, engage, affirmatively and negatively. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 
QUESTIONS. 

How does the Pluperfect Tense represent an action ? 
How is the Pluperfect Tense of the Subjunctive Mode 



62 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

formed ? How is the verb, to love, conjugated in this Tense 1 

Singular Plural 

1 If I had loved 1 If we had loved 

2 If thou had loved 2 If you had loved 

3 If he had loved 3 If they had loved 

Q. How do you conjugate the verb, love, negatively ? 

Singular Plural 

1 If I had not loved 1 If we had not loved 

2 If thou had not loved 2 If you had not loved 

3 If he had not loved 3 If they had not loved 

Q. How is the verb, to be, conjugated with the conjunc- 
tion, unless ? 

Singular Plural 

1 Unless I had been 1 Unless we had been 

2 Unless thou had been 2 Unless you had been 

3 Unless he had been 3 Unless they had been 

Q. How is the verb, to have, conjugated with the con- 
junction, except ? 

Singular Plural 

1 Except I had had 1 Except we had had 

2 Except thou had had 2 Except you had had 

3 Except he had had 3 Except they had had 

Conjugate the verbs, write, read, seek, teach, buy, confine, 
demand, engage, with the different conjunctions. 



FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 
QUESTIONS. 

How does the First Future Tense represent an action ? 
How is the First Future Tense formed ? How is the verb. 
to love, conjugated in this Tense. 

Singular Plural 

1 If I shall love 1 If we shall love 

2 If thou wilt love 2 If you will love 

3 If he will love 3 If they will love 

Conjugate the verb, love, negatively. 



THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 63 

Q. How is the verb, to be, conjugated in the First Future 
Tense ? 

Singular Plural 

1 Unless I shall be 1 If we shall be 

2 Unless thou wilt be 2 If you will be 

3 Unless he will be 3 If they will be 

Q. How is the verb, to have, conjugated with the con- 
junction, whether ? 

Singular Plural 

1 Whether I shall have 1 Whether we shall have 

2 Whether thou wilt have 2 Whether you will have 

3 Whether it will have 3 Whether they will have 

Conjugate the verbs, write, read, seek, teach, learn, buy, 
engage, demand, with the different conjunctions. 

SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 
QUESTIONS. 

How does the Second Future Tense represent an action ? 
How is the Second Future Tense formed ? How is the verb, 
to love, conjugated in this Tense ? 

Singular Plural 

1 If I shall have loved 1 If we shall have loved 

2 If thou wilt have loved 2 If you will have loved 

3 If he will have loved 3 If they will have loved 

Q. How do you conjugate the verb, to be, with the con- 
junction, whether ? 

Singular Plural 

1 Whether I shall have been 1 Whether we shall have 

been 

2 Whether thou wilt have 2 Whether you will have 

been been 

3 Whether he will have been 3 Whether they will have 

been 

Q. How do you conjugate the verb, to have, with the 
conjunction, Jest ? 

Singular Plural 

1 Lest I shall have had 1 Lest we shall have had 

2 Lest thou wilt have had 2 Lest you will have had 

3 Lest he will have had 3 Lest they will have had 



64 THE INDICATIVE MODE. 

Q. How will you conjugate the verb, to write, negatively, 
with the conjunction, though ? 

Singular Plural 

1 Though I shall not have 1 Though we shall not have 

written written 

2 Though thou wilt not have 2 Though you will not have 

written written 

3 Though he will not have 3 Though they will not have 

written written 



LESSON XX. 
THE INDICATIVE MODE, 

QUESTIONS. 



How does the Indicative Mode express an action ? How 
many Tenses has the Indicative Mode ? 

PRESENT TENSE. 
QUESTIONS. 

How does the Present Tense represent an action ? How 
is the verb, to be, conjugated in the Indicative Mode, Present 
Tense ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I am 1 We are 

2 Thou art 2 Ye or you are 

3 He is 3 They are 

Q. How do you conjugate to be, negatively ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I am not 1 We are not 

2 Thou art not 2 Ye or you are not 

3 He is not 3 They are not 

Q. How do you conjugate the verb, to have ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I have 1 We have 

2 Thou hast 2 Ye or you have 

3 He has 3 They have 



THE INDICATIVE MODE. 65 

Q. How do you conjugate this verb, interrogatively? 

Singular Plural 

1 Do I have 1 Do we have 

2 Dost thou have 2 Do you have 

3 Does he have 3 Do they have 

Q. How is the verb, to love, conjugated in this Mode and 
Tense ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I love 1 We love 

2 Thou lovest 2 You love 

3 He loves 3 They love 

Q. How will you conjugate it, interrogatively and nega- 
tively ? 

Singular Plural 

1 Do I not love 1 Do we not love 

2 Dost thou not love 2 Do you not love 

3 Does he not love 3 Do they not love 

Conjugate the verbs, read, write, take, study, arise, go, 
work, demand, negatively and interrogatively. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 
QUESTIONS. 

How does the Imperfect Tense express an action ? How 
is the Imperfect Tense formed and found 1 How is the verb, 
to be, conjugated in this Tense ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I was 1 We were 

2 Thou wast 2 Ye or you were 

3 He was 3 They were 

Conjugate the same, negatively and interrogatively ? 

Q. How do you conjugate the verb, to have, in this Mode 
and Tense, and in the negative form ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I had not 1 We had not 

2 Thou hadst not 2 You had not 

3 She had not 3 They had not 



66 THE INDICATIVE MODE. 

Q. How do you conjugate the same verb, with the aux- 
iliary, did, and in the negative form ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I did not have 1 We did not have 

2 Thou didst not have 2 You did not have 

3 It did not have 3 They did not have 

Conjugate the same, affirmatively and interrogatively. 
Q. How is the verb, to love, conjugated affirmatively ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I loved 1 We loved 

2 Thou lovedst 2 You loved 

3 She loved 3 They loved 

Q. How do you conjugate the same verb, interrogatively, 
in the negative form, with the auxiliary did 1 

Singular Plural 

1 Did I not love 1 Did we not love 

2 Didst thou not love 2 Did you not love 

3 Did she not love 3 Did they not love 

Q. How is the verb, to teach, conjugated in this Mode 
and Tense ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I taught 1 We taught 

2 Thou taughtest 2 You taught 

3 He taught 3 They taught 

Conjugate read, write, go, see, take, demand, and engage, 
affirmatively, negatively, and interrogatively. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

QUESTIONS. 

How does the Perfect Tense represent an action ? How 
is the Perfect Tense of the Indicative Mode formed ? How 
is the verb, to be, conjugated in this Mode and Tense ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I have been 1 We have been 

2 Thou hast been 2 Ye or you have been 

3 He has been 3 They have been 



THE INDICATIVE MODE. 67 

Q. How is it conjugated in the negative form ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I have not been 1 We have not been 

2 Thou hast not been 2 You have not been 

3 He has not been 3 They have not been 

Q. How is the verb, to have, conjugated in this Mode and 
Tense ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I have had 1 We have had 

2 Thou hast had 2 You have had 

3 He has had 3 They have had 

Q. How is it conjugated in the negative interrogative form? 

Singular Plural 

1 Have I not had 1 Have we not had 

2 Hast thou not had 2 Have you not had 

3 Has it not had 3 Have they not had 

Q. How is the verb, to love, conjugated ? 

Singular Plural 

1 1 have loved 1 We have loved 

2 Thou hast loved 2 Ye or you have loved 

3 He has loved 3 They have loved 

Conjugate the same negatively and interrogatively. 

Q. How is the verb, to ivrite, conjugated in this Mode 
and Tense ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I have written 1 We have written 

2 Thou hast written 2 You have written 

3 She has written 3 They have written 

Q. How do you conjugate it negatively ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I have not written 1 We have not written 

2 Thou hast not written 2 You have not written 

3 She has not written 3 They have not written 

Conjugate the same in the affirmative and negative inter- 
rogative forms ; and also, the verbs, arise, go, come, return, 
see, make, hear, 



68 THE INDICATIVE MODE. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 
QUESTIONS. 

How does the Pluperfect Tense represent an action ? 
How is this Tense formed in the Indicative Mode ? How is 
the verb, to be, conjugated in this Tense ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I had been 1 We had been 

2 Thou hadst been 2 Ye or you had been 

3 It had been 3 They had been 

Q. How do you conjugate the same, interrogatively ? 

Singular Plural 

1 Had I been 1 Had we been 

2 Hadst thou been 2 Had you been 

3 Had he been 3 Had they been 

Q. - How do you conjugate the verb, to have, in this Tense I 

Singular Plural 

1 I had had 1 We had had 

2 Thou hadst had 2 Ye or you had had 

3 He had had 3 They had had 

Q. How is this verb conjugated, negatively, in this Tense ? 

1 I had not had 1 We had not had 

2 Thou hadst not had 2 You had not had 

3 He had not had 3 They had not had 

Q. How is the verb, to love, in this Mode and Tense ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I had loved 1 We had loved 

2 Thou hadst loved 2 Ye or you had loved 

3 He had loved 3 They had loved 

Conjugate the same negatively. 

Q. How is the verb, to learn, in this Mode and Tense ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I had learned 1 We had learned 

2 Thou hadst learned 2 You had learned 

3 She had learned 3 They had learned 

Conjugate the same in the negative interrogative form, 



THE INDICATIVE MODE. 69 

Q. How is the verb, to choose, in this Mode and Tense ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I had chosen 1 We had chosen 

2 Thou hadst chosen 2 You had chosen 

3 He had chosen 3 They had chosen 

Conjugate, read, write, speak, do, catch, arise. 

FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 
QUESTIONS. 

How does the First Future Tense represent an action? 
How is this Tense formed in the Indicative Mode ? What 
do shall, and will, imply, as used in the different persons? How 
do you conjugate the verb, to he, with the auxiliary, will, in 
the first person? 

Singular Plural 

1 I will be 1 We will be 

2 Thou shalt be 2 You shall be 

3 He shall be 3 They shall be 

Q. How is it conjugated with shall, in the first person ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I shall be 1 We shall be 

2 Thou wilt be 2 You will be 

3 He will be 3 They will be 

Conjugate the same in the negative and interrogative forms. 
Q. How is the verb, to have, in this Mode and Tense? 

Singular Plural 

1 I will have 1 We will have 

2 Thou shalt have 2 You shall have 

3 He shall have 3 They shall have 

How with the auxiliary shall, in the first person ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I shall have 1 We shall have 

2 Thou wilt have 2 You will have 

3 He will have 3 They will have 

F* 



70 THE INDICATIVE MODE. 

Q. How is the verb, to love, in this Mode and Tense 1 

Singular Plural 

1 I shall love 1 We shall love 

2 Thou wilt love 2 Ye will love 

3 He will love 3 They will love 

Q. How is the verb, to demand, in this Tense ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I shall demand 1 We will demand 

2 Thou wilt demand 2 You shall demand 

3 He will demand 3 They shall demand 

Conjugate the foregoing verbs negatively and interroga- 
tively ; also, such other verbs as may be thought best by 
the teacher. 



SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 

QUESTIONS. 

How does the Second Future Tense represent an action ? 
How is the Second Future Tense of the Indicative Mode 
formed ? How is the verb, to be, conjugated in this Mode and 
Tense ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I shall have been 1 We shall have been 

2 Thou wilt have been 2 You will have been 

3 He will have been 3 They will have been 

Singular Plural 

1 I will have been 1 We will have been 

2 Thou shalt have been 2 You shall have been 

3 He shall have been 3 They shall have been 

Q. Can you conjugate this verb negatively and interrog- 
atively ? 

Q. How is the verb, to have, in this Mode and Tense ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I shall or will have had 1 We shall or will have had 

2 Thou shalt or wilt have had 2 You shall or will have had 

3 He shall or will have had 3 They shall or will have had 



THE INFINITIVE MODE, 71 

Q. How is this verb conjugated in the interrogative form? 
Singular Plural 

1 Shall I have had 1 Shall we have had 

2 Wilt thou have had 2 Will you have had 

3 Will he have had 3 Will they have had 

Q. How is the verb, to love, conjugated in this Mode and 
Tense ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I shall have loved I We shall have loved 

2 Thou wilt have loved 2 You will have loved 

3 He will have loved 3 They will have loved 

Q. How can you conjugate this verb in an interrogative 
negative form ? 

Singular Plural 

1 Shall I not have loved 1 Shall we not have loved 

2 Wilt thou not have loved 2 Will you not have loved 

3 Will he not have loved 3 Will they not have loved 

Conjugate the verbs, write, read, teach, rise, and such other 
verbs as may be thought proper, under the several forms of 
affirmation, negation, and interrogation. 



LESSON XXL 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

Q. How does a Passive Verb express an action or rela- 
tion? 

A. It expresses the suffering or receiving of an action 
that is performed by some other agent or actor. 

Q. How is a Passive Verb conjugated or formed? 

A. A Passive Verb is formed and conjugated by placing 
the verb, to be, in any Mode or Tense desired, and prefixing to 
it the perfect participle of any other verb. 

THE INFINITIVE MODE. 

QUESTIONS. 

How does the Infinitive Mode express an action ? How is 
it distinguished ? How many Tenses has this Mode ? How 



72 



THE IMPERATIVE MODE. THE POTENTIAL MODE. 



are these Tenses distinguished and formed? How are the fol- 
lowing verbs expressed in this Mode, and in the Passive Voice. 

Perfect. 
To have been loved 
To have been clothed 
To have been forgotten 
To have been forsaken 
To have been taught 
To have been wounded 



How does the Imperative Mode express an action ? How 
many Tenses has the Imperative Mode ? What must always 
be the nominative case to a verb in this Mode, and why ? 
How are the following verbs expressed or conjugated in the 
Imperative Mode, Passive Voice ? 

Questions Singular 

Love Be thou loved or do thou 

be loved 
Clothe Be thou clothed or do 

thou be clothed 



Questions. 


Present. 


Love 


To be loved 


Clothe 


To be clothed 


Forget 


To be forgotten 


Forsake 


To be forsaken 


Teach 


To be taught 


Wound 


To be wounded 




THE IMPERATIV 




QUESTIONS 



Plural 
Be ye loved or do ye be 

loved 
Be ye clothed or do ye be 

clothed 



Forget Be thou forgotten or do Be you forgotten or do 



thou be forgotten 
Forsake Be thou forsaken or do 

thou be forsaken 
Teach Be thou taught or do 

thou be taught 
Wound Be thou wounded or do 

thou be wounded 



you be forgotten 
Be you forsaken or do you 

be forsaken 
Be ye taught or do you 

be taught 
Be ye wounded or do you 

be wounded 



THE POTENTIAL MODE. 



QUESTIONS. 



How does the Potential Mode express an action ? What 
auxiliary verbs are used to denote the Potential Mode ? How 
many Tenses has this Mode ? Which are they ? 



PRESENT TENSE, 



QUESTIONS. 

How does the Present Tense represent an action ? How 
is the Present Tense of the Potential Mode formed ? How is 



THE POTENTIAL MODE, 73 

the verb, to love, conjugated in the Potential Mode, Present 
Tense, Passive Voice ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I may or can be loved 1 We may or can be loved 

2 Thou mayst or canst be 2 You may or can be loved 

loved 

3 He may or can be loved 3 They may or can be loved 

Q. How is the verb, to clothe, conjugated, with the aux- 
iliary, must ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I must be clothed 1 We must be clothed 

2 Thou must be clothed 2 Ye or you must be clothed 

3 She must be clothed 3 They must be clothed 

Conjugate the following verbs, negatively, and interrogative- 
ly, viz.: forget, forsake, teach, instruct, wound, hurt, permit. 



IMPERFECT TENSE. 

How does the Imperfect Tense represent an action ? How 
is the Imperfect Tense of this Mode formed ? How is the 
verb, to love, conjugated in this Mode and Tense, Passive 
Voice ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I might, could, would, or 1 We might, could, would, 

should be loved or should be loved 

2 Thou mightst, couldst, 2 Ye or you might, could, 

wouldst, or shouldst would, or should be loved 

be loved 

3 He might, could, would, or 3 They might, could, would, 

should be loved or should be loved 

Q. How is the verb, to clothe, in this Mode and Tense ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I might, could, would, or 1 We might, could, would, 

should be clothed or should be clothed 

2 Thou mightst, couldst, 2 Ye or you might, could, 

wouldst, or shouldst would, or should be clothed 

be clothed 

3 He might, could, would, or 3 They might, could, would, 

should be clothed or should be clothed 



74 THE POTENTIAL MODE. 

PERFECT TENSE. 
QUESTIONS. 

How does the Perfect Tense represent an action ? How 
is the Perfect Tense of the Potential Mode formed ? How i& 
the verb, to love, conjugated in the Perfect Tense of this 
Mode, Passive Voice ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I may or can have been I We may or can have been 

loved loved 

2 Thou mayst or canst have 2 You may or can have been 

been loved loved 

3 He may or can have been 3 They may or can have 

loved been loved 

Q. How do you conjugate the verb, to clothe, with the 
auxiliary, must ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I must have been clothed 1 We must have been clothed 

2 Thou must have been 2 You must have been 

clothed clothed 

3 He must have been clothed 3 They must have been 

clothed 

Conjugate the verbs, forget, forsake, teach, instruct, and 
hurt, affirmatively, negatively, and interrogatively, with the 
different auxiliaries. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE, 
QUESTIONS. 

How does the Pluperfect Tense represent an action? 
How is the Pluperfect Tense of the Potential Mode formed? 
How is the verb, to love, conjugated in the Perfect Tense. 
Passive Voice. 

Singular Plural 

1 I might or could have been 1 We might or could have 

loved been loved 

2 Thou mightst or couldst 2 You might or could have 

have been loved been loved 

3 He might or could have 3 They might or could have 

been loved been loved 



THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 75 

Conjugate the verb, to teach, with the auxiliaries, should, 
and would. 

Singular Plural 

1 I should or would have 1 We should or would have 

been taught been taught 

2 Thou shouldst or wouldst 2 You should or would have 

have been taught baen taught 

3 He should or would have 3 They should or would have 

been taught been taught 

Conjugate the verbs, clothe, forget, forsake, instruct, hurt, 
appoint, with the different auxiliaries, and in the negative and 
interrogative form, as before directed. 

EXAMPLES. 

Let the learner conjugate the following Verbs, in the In- 
finitive, Imperative, and Potential Modes, alternately, in the 
Active and Passive Voices, viz.: beat, bereave, catch, choose, 
drive, fight, leave, seek, take, throw. 



LESSON XXII. 
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

QUESTIONS, 

How does the Subjunctive Mode express an action ? What 
Conjunctions require the Subjunctive Mode after them ? How 
many Tenses has the Subjunctive Mode ? 

PRESENT TENSE. 
QUESTIONS. 

How does the Present Tense represent an action? How is 
the verb, to love, conjugated in the Subjunctive Mode, Passive 
Voice ? 

Singular Plural 

1 If I be loved 1 If we be loved 

2 If thou be loved 2 If ve or you be loved 

3 If he be loved 3 If they be loved. 



76 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Conjugate the same verb negatively. Also, the verbs, 
clothe, teach, beat, forget, and catch, with the different con- 
junctions. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 
QUESTIONS. 

How does the Imperfect Tense represent an action ? How 
is the Imperfect Tense formed or found ? How is the verb, 
to love, in the Imperfect Tense, Passive Voice ? 

Singular Plural 

1 If I were loved 1 If we were loved 

2 If thou wert loved 2 If you were loved 

3 If he were loved 3 If they were loved 

Conjugate the verbs, named in the Present Tense, in the 
same manner as there required. 

PERFECT TENSE, 
QUESTIONS. 

How does the Perfect Tense represent an action ? How 
is the Perfect Tense formed ? How is the verb, to love 9 con- 
jugated in the Perfect Tense ? 

Singular Plural 

1 If I have been loved 1 If we have been loved 

2 If thou have been loved 2 If you have been loved 

3 If he have been loved 3 If they have been loved 

Conjugate the same negatively ; also, the verbs, clothe, 
teach, beat, forget, and forgive, with the different conjunc- 
tions. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

QUESTIONS. 

How does the Pluperfect Tense represent an action ? How 
is the Pluperfect Tense formed ? How is the verb, to love, 
conjugated in this Tense, and in the Passive Voice ? 

1 If I had been loved 1 If we had been loved 

2 If thou had been loved 2 If you had been loved 

3 If she had been loved 3 If they had been loved 



THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 77 

Conjugate the same negatively ; also, the verbs, clothe? 
teach, instruct, beat, hurt, and catch, with the several con- 
junctions that require the Subjunctive Mode after thefn. 

FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 
QUESTIONS. 

How does the First Future Tense represent an action ? 
How is the First Future Tense formed ? How is the verb, 
to love, conjugated in this Tense, Passive Voice ? 

Singular Plural 

1 If I shall or will be loved 1 If we shall or will be loved 

2 If thou shalt or wilt be loved 2 If you shall or will be loved 

3 If he shall or will be loved 3 If they shall or will be loved 

Conjugate the same, as required in the previous Tenses, 
together with the other verbs there named. 

SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 

QUESTIONS. 

How does the Second Future Tense represent an action ? 
How is the Second Future Tense formed? How is the verb, 
to love, conjugated in this Tense ? 

Singular Plural 

1 If I shall or will have been 1 If we shall or will have 

loved been loved 

2 If thou shalt or wilt have 2 If you shall or will have 

been loved been loved 

3 If. he shall or will have 3 If they shall or will have 

been loved been loved 

Conjugate the same, with the other verbs, as required 
above. 



EXAMPLES. 

Let the learner be required to conjugate the following 
verbs, in the Infinitive, Imperative, Potential, and Subjunctive 
Modes, alternately, in the Active and Passive Voices, viz.: 
chide, choose, draw, hear, know, leave, remove, and smite ; 
using the single auxiliaries with each verb, instead of uniting 
two ; as, If I shall love, if thou wilt love; instead of, I shall 
or will love. 



78 

LESSON XXIII. 
THE INDICATIVE MODE. 

QUESTIONS. 

How does the Indicative Mode express an action ? How 
many Tenses has the Indicative Mode ? 

PRESENT TENSE. 
QUESTIONS. 

How does the Present Tense represent an action ? How 
is the verb, to love, conjugated in the Indicative Mode, Pres- 
ent Tense, Passive Voice ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I am loved 1 We are loved 

2 Thou art loved 2 Ye or you are loved 

3 He is loved 3 They are loved 

Conjugate the same negatively, interrogatively, and in the 
negative interrogative form. Also, the verbs, clothe, teach, 
beat, forget, forsake, catch, forgive. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 
QUESTIONS. 

How does the Imperfect Tense express an action ? How 
is the Imperfect Tense formed and found ? How is the verb, 
to love, conjugated in the Imperfect Tense, Passive Voice ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I was loved 1 We were loved 

2 Thou wast loved 2 Ye or you were loved 

3 She was loved 3 They were loved 

Conjugate the same, together with the verbs named in the 
preceding Tense, in the manner there required. 

PERFECT TENSE. 
QUESTIONS. 

How does the Perfect Tense represent an action ? How 
is the Perfect Tense of the Indicative Mode formed and found? 



THE INDICATIVE MODE. 79 

How is the verb, to love, conjugated in the Perfect Tense, 
Passive Voice ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I have been loved 1 We have been loved 

2 Thou hast been loved 2 You have been loved 

3 He has been loved 3 They have been loved 

Conjugate the same negatively and interrogatively. Also, 
the verbs mentioned in the foregoing tenses, as there required. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 
QUESTIONS. 

How does the Pluperfect Tense represent an action ? How 
is the Pluperfect Tense formed ? How is the verb, to love, 
conjugated in this Tense, and in the Passive Voice ? 

Singular Plural 

1 I had been loved 1 We had been loved 

2 Thou hadst been loved 2 You had been loved 

3 He had been loved 3 They had been loved 

FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 
QUESTIONS. 

How does the First Future Tense represent an action? 
How is this Tense formed in the Indicative Mode ? How is 
the verb, to love, conjugated in the First Future Tense ? 
Singular Plural 

1 I shall or will be loved 1 We shall or will be loved 

2 Thou shalt or wilt be loved 2 You shall or will be loved 

3 He shall or will be loved 3 They shall or will be loved 

SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 
QUESTIONS. 

How does the Second Future Tense represent an action ? 
How is the Second Future Tense of the Indicative Mode 
formed? How is the verb, to love, conjugated in this Tense? 
Singular Plural 

1 I shall or will have been i We shall or will have been 

loved loved 

2 Thou shalt or wilt have 2 You shall or will have been 

been loved loved 

3 He shall or will have been 3 They shall or will have 

loved been loved 



80 



PASSIVE PARTICIPLES. 



Conjugate the same, together with the other verbs, nega* 
tively, interrogatively, and in the negative interrogative form, 
connecting each with a single auxiliary. 



ing : 






Verbs, 


Present. 


Perfect. 


Love 


Being loved 


Been loved 


Teach 


Being taught 


Been taught 


Clothe 


Being clothed 


Been clothed 


Instruct 


Being instructed 


Been instructed 


Beat 


Being beaten 


Been beaten 


Hurt 


Being hurt 


Been hurt 


- 




EXAMPLES. 



PASSIVE PARTICIPLES. 

Q. How are Passive Participles formed ? 

A. They are formed by adding the three Participles of 
the verb to be, namely, being, been, having been, to the per- 
fect participle of any verb ; as may be seen from the follow- 



Compound Perfect. 
Having been loved 
Having been taught 
Having been clothed 
Having been instructed 
Having been beaten 
Having been hurt 



EXERCISES ON THE PERSONS, NUMBERS, MODES, TENSES, AND VOICES. 

Give the Second Person, Singular, of the following Verbs, 
namely: abide, begin, command, desire, effect, forgive, grant, 
hinder, inform, judge, know, learn, murder, notice, obligate, 
peruse, quarrel, ruminate, study. 

Q. Can you give the Third Person Singular of the fol- 
lowing Verbs, namely: boast, build, cry, do, engage, brush, 
catch, ride, slide, try, go, echo, cast, beseech, freeze, have. 

Q. Can you tell in what Person, Number, Tense, and 
Mode, the following Verbs are placed, also whether they are 
Active, Passive, or Neuter ? I shall attend. You must not 
go. They have been. He ought to write. If she does not 
study, she cannot learn. Pie was wounded. He must have 
been seen. She has been much admired. Unless you are 
prudent, you will never be rich. Put John's hat on his head. 
To be beloved is desirable. We shall have dined. They 
might have done it. She was well instructed. He would 
not be dishonored. It may take place. You should have 
been there. 



81 

LESSON XXIV. 
THE ADVERB. 

Q. What is an Adverb ? 

A. An Adverb is a word joined to Verbs, Participles, 
Adjectives, and other Adverbs, to modify their meaning, or to 
express some quality or circumstance respecting: them ; as, 
He speaks distinctly. She sings elegantly. The sun shines 
brightly. They behaved disgracefully. Here, the words, 
distinctly, elegantly, brightly, and disgracefully, are Adverbs, 
qualifying the Verbs, speaks, sings, shines, and behaved. 

Q. Into how many Classes may Adverbs be divided, as 
respects their signification ? 

A. Adverbs may be divided into six general Classes, 
namely: Time, Place, Degree, Manner, Number, and Order. 

Q. How are Adverbs of Time distinguished ? 

A. Adverbs of Time are those which answer to the ques- 
tions, When ? How often ? How soon ? 

Q. How may Adverbs of time be subdivided? 

A. They are subdivided into four Classes, namely, Time 
Past, Time Present, Time Future, and Time Indefinite. 

1. Of Time Past ; as, already, yesterday, lately, recent- 
ly, anciently, heretofore, hitherto, since, long since, long ago. 

2. Of Time Present ; as, now, yet, to-day, presently, 
instantly, immediately, directly, straightway. 

3. Of Time Future ; as, to-morrow, hereafter, not yet, 
henceforth, by and by, soon, ere long, henceforward. 

4. Of Time Indefinite ; as, when, then, before, after, 
while, till, until, early, lately, always, ever, never, eternally, 
often, oftentimes, sometimes, seldom, rarely, hourly, daily. 

Q. How are Adverbs of Place distinguished ? 

A. They are those which answer to the questions, 
Where? Whither? Whence? 

Q. How are Adverbs of Place subdivided ? 

A. They are subdivided into two Classes, namely, Place 
and Direction. 

1. Of Place ; as, here, there, where, every where, no 
where, wherever, hither, thither, whither, whence, thence, 
hence, within, without, away, beyond. 

2. Of Direction ; as, upwards, downwards, backward, 
forward, sidew T ays, heavenward, homeward, hitherward, 



82 THE ADVERB. 

thitherward, hereabout, thereabout, back, forth, behind, before. 

Q. How are Adverbs of Degree distinguished 1 

A. They are those that answer to the questions, How 
much ? How little ? 

Q. How are Adverbs of Degree subdivided ? 

A. They are subdivided into two Classes, namely, Abun- 
dance and Deficiency ; as, 

1. Of Abundance; as, much, too much, enough, abun- 
dantly, sufficiently, completely, exceedingly, perfectly, vastly, 
wholly, totally, immensely, greatly, chiefly, entirely, fully, 
altogether, more, most. 

2. Of Deficiency ; as, little, less, least, scarcely, hardly, 
merely, barely, partially, nearly, partly, only, but, almost, 
stintedly, diminutively. 

Q. How are Adverbs of Manner distinguished ? 

A. They are those which answer to the question, How ? 
or that show how a subject is considered, or how an action is 
performed. 

Q. How may Adverbs of Manner be subdivided ? 

A. They are subdivided into four Classes, namely, Qual- 
ity, Affirmation, Negation, and Doubt. 

1. Of Quality ; as, well, ill, wisely, foolishly, justly, un- 
justly, quickly, slowly, bravely, soberly, firmly, gravely, 
sadly, mirthfully, playfully, daringly. 

2. Of Affirmation ; as, yes, yea, aye, verily, truly, in- 
deed, surely, certainly, doubtless, undoubtedly, amen. 

3. Of Negation ; as, no, nay, not, in nowise, never, not 
at all, surely not, by no means. 

4. Of Doubt ; as, perhaps, perchance, peradventure, 
may be so, possibly, haply, probably, unlikely. 

Q. Which are the Adverbs of Number ? 

A. They are, once, twice, thrice, four times, and so on. 

Q. Which are Adverbs of Order ? 

A. They are, firstly, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, and so on. 

Q. What are Interrogative Adverbs ? 

A. They are those that are used in askkig questions ; 
as, how, why, when, where, whither, wherefore ; but these 
severally belong to the Classes under which they have been 
previousl} 7- arranged. 

Q. What is the particular use of Adverbs ? 

A. They are of much use in expressing the quality or 
circumstance attached to other words, but they are more par- 



THE ADVERB. 83 

ticularly useful in shortening a phrase or sentence, by ex- 
pressing, in one word, what would require two or more dif- 
ferent words to give the same meaning ; as, Come here, in- 
stead of, Came to this place. He acts nobly, instead of, He 
acts in a noble manner. 

Q. Have Adverbs any Modifications ? 

A. They have none but the degrees of comparison, some 
Adverbs being compared like Adjectives ; as, soon, sooner, 
soonest ; often, oftener, oftenest ; long, longer, longest. 

Q. How are Adverbs ending in ly, compared? 

A. They are compared by more and most, or less and 
least ; as, wisely, more wisely, most wisely ; culpably, less 
culpably, least culpably ; bravely, more bravely, most 
bravely. 

Q. How do you compare the following irregular Adverbs? 

Questions Answers 

Well Well, better, best. 

Badly or ill 111, worse, worst. 

Little Little, less, least. 

Much Much, more, most. 

Far Far, farther, farthest. 

Forth Forth, further, furthest. 

Q. Will all Adverbs of quality admit of being compared? 
A. They will not. Those derived from Superlative Ad- 
jectives will, like the Adjective from which they are formed, 
not admit of comparison ; as, infinitely, supremely, eternally, 
everlastingly. 

Q. When circumstances of time, place, or manner, are 
expressed by several words, constituting a phrase, what is 
such a phrase called ? 

A. It is called an adverbial phrase ; as. Not at all, in no 
wise, in short, at least, by and by, to and fro, in vain, in or- 
der, long since, by no means, long ago, in general, at length, 
mean while, alongside. 

N. B, Some words are made adverbs by prefixing a to 
them ; as, abed, aboard, ashore, afloat, aground. 

EXAMPLES. 

They will be here immediately. He will bitterly repent 
of his folly. I now think of going very soon. We saw them 
yesterday. Perhaps he may be here to-morrow. Hereafter 



84 



THE PREPOSITION, 



you will have reason to remember my advice. She dances 
elegantly, and sings most sweetly. All must, sooner or later, 
sleep the sleep of death. Those who read too little, often talk 
too much. Thrice have I warned you of the danger, and as 
often have you disregarded my admonitions. How do I know 
that you did not do it ? When is James coming home ? 

QUESTIONS. 

Which are the adverbs ? What words do they qualify 1 
To what classes do they belong? Which are the nouns, and 
pronouns ? Their person, number, and case ? Which are 
verbs ? Their person, number, mode, and tense. 



LESSON XXV. 
THE PREPOSITION. 

Q. What are Prepositions, and what is their use ? 

A. Prepositions are parts of speech used to connect 
words together, and to show what relation they bear to each 
other. 

Q. Where are they generally placed ? 

A. They are placed before Nouns and Pronouns, and al- 
ways require an Objective Case to follow them ; as, They 
reside in Boston. He passed over the river. She came with 
her brother, but went away ivithout him. Here, the words, 
in, over, with, and without, are prepositions, connecting and 
showing the relation of the words between which they are 
placed, and governing the words that follow them in the Ob- 
jective case. 

Q. Which are the principal Prepositions? 

A. They are the following, namely ;. 



Above* 


Behind* 


Excepting 


Past 


Throughout 


About* 


Below* 


For 


Regarding 


Underneath 


Across* 


Beneath* 


From* 


Respecting 


Unlike 


After 


Beside* 


In* 


Round* 


Up* 


Against* 


Besides 


Into* 


Since 


Upon* 


Along* 


Between* 


Like 


Till 


With 


Amid* 


Betwixt* 


Near* 


To* 


Within* 



THE PREPOSITION. 85 



Amidst* 


Beyond* 


Nigh* 


Touching 


Without* 


Among* 


By* 


Of 


Towards* 


According to 


Amongst* 


Concerning 


Off* 


Through* 


Instead of 


Athwart* 


Down* 


On* 


Under* 


Out of 


At* 


Daring 


Over* 


Unto* 


Round about* 


Before* 


Except 









Q. Are the words in the foregoing catalogue always used 
as Prepositions ? 

A. They are not. Many of them are often used as Ad- 
verbs. 

Q. How can you ascertain whether they are Prepositions 
or Adverbs? 

A. A Preposition always requires an Objective Case after 
it ; therefore when a Preposition does not govern an object 
after it, it becomes an Adverb ; as, She is above disguise* 
They sailed down the river* Here, above, and down, are 
Prepositions, because they govern the Nouns, disguise, and 
river, in the Objective Case. He looks above. They have 
gone down. Here, above, and down, are Adverbs, because 
they have no object after them, but qualify the Verbs, looks, 
and gone. 

Q. When two Prepositions come together, how are they 
to be considered ? 

A. The first becomes an Adverb; as, He is gone over to 
Charleston. Let us go down to the river. We will go up to 
the meeting. Here, over, down, and up, are Adverbs. 

Q. How are Prepositions to be considered when they are 
joined with Verbs, in such phrases as, aim at, build up, cast 
up, hold in, hold out, fall on, fall out, give up, give over. 

A. The Prepositions in those phrases are more properly 
considered as a part of the Verbs, than as Prepositions, or 
Adverbs, as they have a particular influence on the significa- 
tion of the Verbs to which they are joined. 

Q, Into what Classes may Prepositions be divided, as re- 
spects the relation they show between the words they connect! 

A. They might be divided into a number of Classes ; but 
the most important are those of Time, Place, and Possession. 

Q. Which are some of those that show a relation of Time? 

A. They are, after, before, during, past, since, till, until. 

Q. Which are some that show a relation of Place ? 

A. This class is much the most numerous. Some of them 
are, above, about, among, across, at, before, below, between, 



86 THE CONJUNCTION. 

from, into, on, over, under, upon, within. Those Prepositions 
in the catalogue marked ( * ), all show the relation of Place. 

Q. What Preposition shows the relation of Possession ? 

A. Of shows the relation of Possession ; as. The house 
of my father. The store of my brother. Instead of, My 
father's house. My brother's store. 



EXAMPLES. 

He came into the city, and stayed during the day. They 
went on in the steam -boat. He will not continue long in that 
situation. They walked into a field, and sat down on a green 
bank, under the shade of a tree, by the side of a cool spring. 
James, do you hold on to one end, while Charles pulls at the 
other, and see if you can break it into two pieces. As I was 
passing along the street, about noon, on the side- walk near 
the bridge down by the market, I picked up a pocket-book 
that had fifty dollars in it ; and rinding the owner's name in 
it, I carried it to him, and he took out five dollars and gave 
to me for my honesty. 

QUESTIONS. 

Which are the prepositions ? What relation do they show ?. 
What words do they show the relation between ? Describe 
also the nouns, pronouns, and verbs, with their modes, and 
tenses, as fully as may be thought best. 



LESSON XXVI. 
THE CONJUNCTION. 

Q. What is a Conjunction ? 

A. A Conjunction is a word which is used to connect 
words and sentences together, and to show the connexion and 
dependence of the different parts of a sentence or of different 
words so connected ; as, My brother and sister are in Boston. 
John and James are good scholars. Here the Conjunction, 
and, connects two words, brother and sister, John and James. 
My brother is in Boston, and my sister is in New-York. 



THE CONJUNCTION. 87 

but I am content to stay at home. Here the Conjunctions, 
and, and but, connect sentences. 

Q. Into how many Classes are Conjunctions divided ? 

A. They are divided into two Classes, namely, Copulative 
and Disjunctive. 

Q. What are Copulative Conjunctions ? 

A. They are those Conjunctions that denote an addition, 
a cause, or supposition ; as, He and I shall not contend about 
it, for I shall abandon the project if he does not consent. Here 
the Conjunction, and, expresses addition ; the Conjunction, 
for, expresses cause ; and the Conjunction, if, expresses sup- 
position. 

Q. Which are the principal Copulative Conjunctions ? 

A. They are, also, and, because, both, if, for, since, that, 
then, therefore, and wherefore. 

Q. What are Disjunctive Conjunctions ? 

A. They are those Conjunctions, that, while they connect 
words and sentences, denote diversity or opposition in the 
meaning ; as, He is either sick, or detained by some other 
accident. He might improve, but he will not study. She 
reads w 11, but writes badly. 

Q. Which are the principal Disjunctive Conjunctions? 

A. 1 hey are, either, neither, or, nor, than, though, al- 
though, yd, but, except, whether, lest, unless, save, notwith- 
standing, as, so, as well as, still. 

Q. re not some of these Conjunctions also used as other 
parts of speech ? 

A. veral of them are used sometimes as Adverbs, 

sometin j as Prepositions, sometimes as Conjunctions, and 
sometin as Adjective and Relative Pronouns, according 
to the | ticular relation they bear to other words in a 
sentenc 

Q. Vhich are the Conjunctions that are most frequently 
used as Adverbs, Prepositions, Adjective and Relative Pro- 
nouns ? 

A. 3y are, both, either, neither, that, for, except, since, 

and but 

Q. hat other use is made of both, either, and neither, 

than tl c of Conjunctions ? and how can you distinguish their 
use? 

A. h, either, and neither, when joined to Nouns, are 

Adject Pronouns ; as, Both the boys are here. Either 



88 THE CONJUNCTION. 

copy is better than yours. Neither of the men was found 
guilty. Here, both, either, and neither, are Adjective Pro- 
nouns. 

Q. When are they used as Conjunctions ? 

A. When they are followed by their corresponding Con- 
junctions, and, or, and nor ; els, Both you and I know it. 
Either Thomas or George must go. Neither Samuel nor 
Stephen can do it. Here, both, either, and neither, are Con- 
junctions. 

Q. How is that used, other than as a Conjunction ? 

A. It is sometimes a Relative, and sometimes an Adjec- 
tive Pronoun. 

Q. How can you distinguish its different uses ? 

A. That, when it points out a thing, is an Adjective Pro- 
noun ; as, that man, that tree, that house. 

Q. When is that used as a Relative Pronoun ? 

A. When it refers to an antecedent Noun or Pronoun, or 
when its place can be supplied by who, or which, and retain 
the same meaning; as, The house that (which) I built. The 
man that (who) was hurt is dead. 

Q. When is that used as a Conjunction? 

A. When it does not point out any thing, and cannot have 
its place supplied by who, or which; as, I wish to hear, that 
I may judge for myself. O that they would be wise, that 
they would consider. 

Q. How are for, and except, used ? 

A. They are used sometimes as Prepositions, and some- 
times as Conjunctions. 

Q. When are for, and except, Prepositions ? 

A. When they are followed by a Noun or Pronoun in 
the Objective Case; as, We sent for him. Wisdom is proper 
for man. I gave him all my apples except one. The crew 
all perished, except the captain and mate. For, is also some- 
times an Adverb ; as, Such an event was not looked for. 

Q. When are they Conjunctions? 

A. When their places can be supplied by because, and 
unless, and retain the same sense ; as, I know he was there, 
for (because) I saw him. Except (unless) ye repent, ye shall 
all likewise perish. 

Q. How are since, and but, used ? 

A. They are used sometimes as Adverbs, sometimes as 
Prepositions, and sometimes as Conjunctions. 



THE INTERJECTION. 89 

Q. When are they used as Adverbs ? 

A. Since is an Adverb when it represents time, and is 
not followed by an objective case ; as, I heard of that long 
since. Since hearing both sides, I have changed my opinion. 
But is an Adverb when its place can be supplied by the ad- 
verb only ; as, He gets but (only) enough to pay his ex- 
penses. In order to accomplish, you have hut (only) to try. 

Q. When are since and but used as Prepositions ? 

A. Since is a Preposition when it is followed by an ob- 
jective case ; as, We have heard nothing since that event* 
But is a Preposition when it has the same meaning, or can 
have its place supplied with the preposition, except ; as, All 
were saved but (except) the mate. All the boys are here 
but (except) John. 

Q. When are since and but used as Conjunctions ? 

A. They are Conjunctions when their places can be sup- 
plied by the words, as and though, or yet ; as, Since (as) we 
must do it, let us do it cheerfully. He is honest, and indus- 
trious, but (though) poor. He makes money but (yet) he 
cannot keep it. 

Q. Are the foregoing all the words that are used as dif- 
ferent parts of speech, in different situations? 

A. They are not ; there are a great variety of words 
that are used, sometimes as one part of speech, and sometimes 
as another. 

Q. In what way can you most readily determine what 
part of speech those words are, that are used thus variously ? 

A. By substituting some other word that will convey the 
same meaning, and which, as respects the part of speech, is 
more distinctly defined, as has already been illustrated in the 
preceding answers. 



THE INTERJECTION. 

Q. What are Interjections ? 

A. Interjections are those words, or sounds of ejacula- 
tion, that are uttered to express some strong or sudden emo- 
tion of the mind ; as, heigh, oh, alas, indeed, and the like. 

Q. Into how many Classes may Interjections be divided ? 

A. They are divided into twelve Classes, according to 
the passion, or the emotions of the mind which they are in- 
tended to express, as follows : 

H 



90 SYNTAX. 

1. Of Joy or Exultation— Eigh ! hey ! aha } huzza ! hey- 
day ! hurrah ! 

2. Of Pain or Sorrow — Oh ! ah ! alas ! alack ! O dear ! 
welladay ! 

3. Of Wonder — Heigh ! ha ! strange ! 

4. Of Desire or Wishing — O ! do ! come now ! pray do ! 

5. Of Contempt — Fudge! poh! pugh ! pish] tut! tush! 

6. Of Aversion — Foh ! fie! off! begone! avaunt! away! 

7. Of Calling Attention — Ho ! so ho ! halloo ! lo ! be- 
hold ! see ! look ! 

8. Of Salutation— Welcome ! hail ! all hail ! 

9. Of Surprise — Oh ! ha ! hah ! what ! haw ! 

10. Of Calling Silence — Hush ! hist ! mum ! hark ! 

11. Of Languor — Heigh ho ! 

12. Of Stopping — Avast! whoh ! 

EXAMPLES EXERCISING ALL THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

A good scholar will always gain the approbation of his 
teacher. The best scholar will sometimes do that which is 
wrong. John writes well, but Charles writes very well. 
James, where are you going now ? George, were you at the 
meeting last evening ? No, it was so stormy, I could not at- 
tend. A good conscience makes a soft pillow. This hat is 
mine, and that is yours. They have caught the man 
who robbed the bank. O, Jane, have you seen my sister's 
new piano ? Halloo ! there, Jack, heave too ! which way 
are you bound ? We, as well as they, ought to attend better 
to our studies. " O, Jerusalem, Jerusalem, thou that killest 
the prophets, and stonest them that are sent unto thee, how 
often would I have gathered thy children together, even as a 
hen gathereth her chickens under her wings, and ye would 
not ! Behold, your house is left unto you desolate ! " 



LESSON XXVII. 
SYNTAX. 

Q. Of what does Syntax treat ? 

A. Syntax treats of the Arrangement, the Agreement, 
and Government of words in a sentence. 



SYNTAX. yi 

Q. What do you understand by Arrangement of words ? 

A. By Arrangement is understood the placing of words in 
a sentence in the best manner for an easy and correct under- 
standing of the sense. 

Q. What do you understand by the Agreement of words ? 

A. Agreement of words is their similarity in Person, 
Number, Gender, and Case. 

Q. What do you understand by the Government of words? 

A. Government is that power, or influence, which one 
word has over another, in directing, or causing it to be in any 
particular Person, Number, Case, Mode, or Tense. 

Q. What is a Sentence ? 

A. A Sentence is an assemblage of words, so arranged as 
to make complete sense. 

Q. How many kinds of Sentences are there ? 

A. There are two kinds,. Simple and Compound. 

Q. W T hat is a Simple Sentence 1 

A. A Simple Sentence is one that conveys but one af- 
firmation or negation, and consists of one subject, or nomina- 
tive case, and one finite and personal verb ; as, Man is mortal. 
Gold is a valuable metal. Harriet does not improve. Julia 
cannot read. 

Q. What is a Compound Sentence ? 

A. A Compound Sentence consists of two or more Sim- 
pie Sentences, connected together by one or more connective 
words ; as, Our time, which is short, should be improved to 
the best advantage. Thomas is in Boston, and Henry is in 
Philadelphia. 

Q. What is a Phrase ? 

A. A Phrase consists of several words which express 
some circumstance or relation, but do not form a complete 
sentence, or express any definite idea ; as, To confess the 
truth, I was in fault. To be 'plain with you, you were much 
to blame. Here the Phrases, " To confess the truth" and, 
" To be plain with you" would not express any distinct idea 
of themselves, but require the after clause of the sentence to 
complete the sense. 

Q. What are the most important parts of a Simple Sen- 
tence ? 

A. They are the Subject, or Nominative Case, the Verb, 
agreeing with the nominative case, and the Object, or thing 
affected by the verb ; all the other parts depending on these ; 



92 PARSING. GENERAL RULES OF SYNTAX. 

as, from the simple expression, " Crimes deserve punishment" 
other dependant parts may be added ; as, High crimes justly 
deserve very severe punishment. 

PARSING. 

Q. What do you understand by Parsing a sentence ? 

A. To Parse a sentence is to define each part of speech, 
naming its person, number, gender, and case, if a noun or 
pronoun ; its person, number, mode, and tense, if a verb ; to- 
gether with its agreement or government ; defining also the 
other parts of speech, designating such qualities or modifica- 
tions as belong to them. For this purpose, the following 
Rules of Syntax are necessary. 



GENERAL RULES OF SYNTAX. 

RULE I. 

Every Nominative Case, except the Case- Absolute, or In- 
dependent, requires a Verb, either expressed or understood. 

RULE II. 

Every Verb, except the Infinitive Mode, and Participle, 
must have a nominative case, either expressed or understood. 

RULE III. 

Every Active Verb requires an Object, expressed or un- 
derstood ; and every Objective Case requires an Active Verb 
or Preposition, expressed or understood, to govern it. 

RULE IV. 

Every Possessive Case possesses some Noun, expressed or 
understood. 

rule v. 

Every Relative and Personal Pronoun refers back to some 
Antecedent Noun, expressed or understood. 

RULE VI. 

Every Adjective, and every Adjective Pronoun, qualifies or 
belongs to some Noun or Pronoun, expressed or understood. 



RULES. 



RULE VII. 



93 



Every Adverb qualifies or influences some Verb, Adjec- 
tive, or other Adverb. 

RULE VIII- 

Every Conjunction connects either words or sentences. 

PARTICULAR RULES AND ILLUSTRATION OF THE 

PRINCIPLES OF SYNTAX. 

RULE I. 

The Nominative Case governs the Verb in Number and 
Person. That is, if the Nominative Case is of the first, sec- 
ond, or third person, and in the singular or plural number, the 
Verb must be written in the same person and number to agree 
with it ; as, Mary is idle. Thou liatest thy book. They 
conduct well. We are happy. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

Mary is third person, singular, nominative case, and gov- 
erns the verb is ; that is, requires it to be written in the third 
person, singular. Thou is second person singular, and gov- 
erns the verb, hatest, in the second person singular. They 
is third person plural, and governs conduct, in the same per- 
son and number. We is first person plural, and governs the 
verb, are, in the same person and number. 

RULE II. 

The Verb must agree with its Nominative Case, in Num- 
ber and Person \ that is, in whatever number or person the 
nominative case may be, the verb must be written in the same 
number and person ; as, I love, thou readest, he learns, ye 
write. 

ILLUSTRATION, 

Love is in the first person singular, because I, its nomina- 
tive case, is first person singular. Readest is put in the sec- 
ond person singular, because thou, its nominative, is second 

H* 



04 RULES. 

person singular. Learns is in the third person singular, be* 
cause he is third person singular. Write is second person 
plural, because ye, its nominative, is second person plural. 

Q. Is the Nominative Case always placed before the 
Verb? 

A. It is not. It is often placed after the Verb, or be- 
tween the Auxiliary and the principal Verb, 

Q. When is the Nominative Case put after the Verb or 
Auxiliary ? 

A. When a question is asked, a command given, or an 
earnest wish, or strong feeling, is expressed, the Nominative 
Case is put after the Verb, or Auxiliary ; as, Will you call 
to-morrow ? Go thou, and do likewise. May she be happy. 
How were we astonished ! 

Q. Under what other circumstances is the Nominative 
Case thus placed ? 

A. When the Adverbs, here, there, then, thence, hence, 
thus, such, herein, or therein, come before the Verb, the 
Nominative Case is put after it, or between the Auxiliary and 
the principal Verb ; as, Here am I. There is the man. 
Then spake Jesus. Thence proceed wars and fightings. 
Thus saith the Lord. 

Q. Flow can you always find or determine the Nomina- 
tive Case to any Verb ? 

A. By asking the questions, who ? which ? or what ? and 
the word that answers the question will be the Nominative 
Case ; as, 1. Charles, though generally a good boy and in- 
clined to do well, has committed a sad fault. Question. Who 
has committed a sad fault ? Ans. Charles. Therefore, 
Charles is the Nominative Case to committed. 2. The house 
was burned, but the store, being built of stone, and fire proof, 
was preserved. 

Q. What was preserved ? Ans. The store. Therefore, 
store is the Nominative Case to was preserved. 

EXAMPLES. 

Many persons are engaged in the cause of benevolence. 
Competency is the sure reward of industry and frugality. 
There were many present at the time of the accident. Go 
thou to the ant, and of her learn wisdom and prudence. 
Hence arise all the difficulties of the operation. Shall we 



UTILES. 95 

speak to them of this matter, or wait the result ? Here are 
some of the old patriots of the Revolution. Such are the 
facts, as reported at the time, and I presume they are true, 
for they have never been contradicted. 

FALSE GRAMMAR FOR CORRECTION. 

I art he. Thou is the man. They is the boy who done 
it. Am you the man as brought the news ? Where art the 
men which done so noble the deed. Does you love to go to 
school ? When will I see you again ? 



LESSON XXVIIL 

RULE III. 

Two or more Nouns, coming together, signifying the same 
person or thing, are put, by apposition, in the same Case ; as, 
Paul, the Apostle, was a faithful disciple of Christ, our Sa- 
viour. Solomon, the son of David, king of Israel, dwelt at 
Jerusalem, the holy city. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

Paul, and Apostle, are two nouns signifying the same per- 
son, and both nominative case to was. Christ, and Saviour, 
are nouns, signifying the same person, and both in the objec- 
ive case, and governed by the preposition of. Solomon, son, 
and king, are nouns, all signifying the same person, and nom- 
inative to the verb, dwelt. Jerusalem, and city, are nouns, 
both signifying the same place or thing, and both governed 
by the preposition at. 

RULE IV. 

When two Nouns come together signifying different things, 
and implying property, the first is put in the Possessive Case ; 
as, Washington's administration. Milton's poetry. My broth- 
er's house. „ 

ILLUSTRATION. 

Washington's, Milton's, and brother's, are all nouns im« 
plying property, and are, therefore, in the possessive case. 



96 RULES. 

N. B. 1. Two nouns in apposition may both be in the 
possessive case ; as, I bought my book at Mr. Brown's the 
printer's bookstore. 

2. The noun, or thing possessed, is often omitted or un- 
derstood ; as, I bought my hat at Mr. Hudson's ; that is, at 
Mr. Hudson's store. We attended meeting at St. John's ; 
that is, at St. John's church. 



RULE V. 

When two or more Nouns or Pronouns, in the singular 
number, are connected together by the Conjunction and, the 
Verbs, Pronouns, and Relatives, that agree with them, must 
be in the plural number ; as, Benjamin and Charles are good 
scholars ; they make excellent improvement. He and I are 
satisfied of the truth ; we can doubt it no longer. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

Benjamin and Charles are nouns, in the singular number* 
but being connected together, and both included, they make 
a plural, and therefore require the verb, are, and the pronoun, 
they, referring to them, to be in the plural. He and I are 
singular, but both together make plural, and require the verb, 
are satisfied, and the pronoun we to be m the plural number 
to agree with them. 



RULE VI. 

Two or more Nouns or Pronouns, in the singular number, 
connected together by the Conjunctions or, or nor, must have 
the Verbs, Pronouns, and Relatives, that agree with them, in 
the singular number ; as, Neither John, nor Thomas, nor 
William, was there at the time. Either James, or Charles, 
or Henry has done the mischief, and he must be corrected for 
it. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

John, Thomas, and William, are nouns, connected by the 
disjunctive conjunction, nor, and not being taken collectively, 
but singly, they require the verb, was, to be in the singular 
number, to agree with each one separately; that is, neither 
John was there, nor Thomas was there, nor William was 



RULES. 97 

there. James, Charles, and Henry, are also nouns, connected 
by the conjunction, or, and are taken separately ; the verb, has 
done, and the pronoun, he, are therefore required to be in the 
singular number to agree with either. 



RULE VII. 

Nouns of Multitude, including many individuals, may have 
Verbs, Pronouns, and Relatives, to agree with them, either in 
the singular or plural number, according as they convey 
unity or plurality of idea ; as, The army is disbanded, The 
people are assembled. The General Court is in session, and 
they (that is, its members) are determined to pass the resolu- 
tions before they adjourn. 

ILLTJSTEATION. 

Army conveys unity of idea as denoting one collective 
body, and therefore governs the Verb, is, in the singular 
number. People conveys plurality of idea, and governs the 
verb, are assembled, in the plural number. General Court is 
a collective noun, conveying unity of idea, as referring to one 
collective body, and as such, governs the verb, is, in the sin- 
gular number ; but the pronoun, they, referring to it, does not 
refer to the court as one body, but to the several members 
that compose the court, and must, therefore, be in the plural 
number. 

EXAB1PLES. 

Andrew Jackson, the hero of two wars, has retired from 
political life. " Peter's wife's mother lay sick of a fever." 
The President, Mr. Van Buren, and the Secretary of State, 
Mr. Woodbury, are on their tour to New-England. Neither 
the General, nor his aid was in the engagement. The Senate 
of the United States is still in session. They have not con- 
firmed all the appointments by the President, but the House of 
Representatives has adjourned. John, James, and Joseph, 
have performed their parts well. I bought my skates at Mr. 
Brown's, the hardware merchant's store. I admire Doctor 
Young's poetry. 



98 RULES. 



FALSE GRAMMER. 



Napoleon Bonaparte, Emperor of France, were tyrannical 
despots. John's wive's father is sick. Henry Clay and John 
C. Calhoun is an eminent statesman. Neither honor or profit 
are a compensation far the loss of reputations. Either you, 
nor he done it. Either James and John must went, for 
father's say so. 



LESSON XXIX. 

RULE VIII. 

Any Neuter or Passive Verb may have a Nominative Case 
after it, as well as before it, if both words refer to the same 
person or thing ; as, A hoy soon becomes a man. Though 
you are now a scholar, you will soon be a young lady^ 

ILLUSTRATION. 

Boy and man both mean the same person, and must be in 
the same case ; that is, man is nominative case after becomes. 
Scholar and lady are nominative cases after are and will be, 
meaning the same individual as yon, which is the nominative 
to are and will be. 

N. B. The verb, become, is sometimes neuter, and some- 
times active, and governs an objective case ; as, Mary's dress 
becomes her ; that is, adorns her, or ornaments her. Here, 
becomes is an active verb, and governs her, in the objective 
case. 

RULE IX. 

Neuter Verbs, when in the Infinitive Mode, having an 
Objective Case before them, may have an Objective Case 
after them signifying the same person or thing ; as, I thought 
it to be him. He taught his sons to become good citizens. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

It is an objective case before the verb, to be, and Mm* 
meaning the same as it, is in the objective case after to be> 



RULES. 99 

Sons is in the objective case before the verb, to become, 
and citizens, meaning the same persons as sons, is in the ob- 
jective case after to become. 

N. B. From the preceding rules it may be observed, that 
any neuter verb may have the same case after it, as it has 
before it, when both words mean the same person, or thing. 

RULE X. 

Neuter Verbs may govern an Objective Case when the 
Noun after them has a signification similar to that of the 
Verb ; He lives a life of piety. He died the death of the 
righteous. Let us run the race set before us. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

Life, death, and race, are nouns, having a similar significa- 
tion to the verbs, lives, died, and run, and are in the objective 
case and governed by them. 

N. B. 1. The sentences, I have dreamed a dream, He 
sleeps the sleep of death, also, come under this last rule. 

2. In most cases, where neuter verbs are said to govern 
objective cases, they are, in reality, governed by a preposi- 
tion understood ; as, To go a journey. To sail a voyage. 
Here, the preposition, on, is understood, to govern journey and 
voyage. 

RULE XI. 

A Neuter Verb, standing between two nominative cases, 
one in the singular and the other in the plural number, must 
agree in number and person with the first ; as, Men are van- 
ity. Words are wind. The weight is fifty pounds. The 
distance is a hundred miles. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

In the two first sentences, men and words take the lead, as 
subjects, and require their verbs to be in the plural. Weight 
and distance are also the leading subjects, and being in the 
singular number, require their verbs to be in the singular. 

RULE XII. 

A Noun or Pronoun, standing alone as an answer to a 
question, is either in the nominative case to the Verb that 



100 RULES. 

answers the question, or in the objective case and governed 
by it, or by a Preposition, expressed or understood. As, 
Who did that? John. What boy makes that noise? 
Charles. Did you or Henry find the money ? L With 
whom do you live ? Mr. Smith. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

Questions. Answers. 

Who did that ? John did it. 

What boy makes that noise? Charles makes it. 

Did you or Henry find the money ? I found it. 

With whom do you live ? With Mr. Smith. 

Is your brother in Boston or in N. York ? He is in New- York. 

RULE XIII. 

When two or more Nominative Cases of different persons 
are connected by the Conjunction, or, or nor, the Verb must 
be made to agree with the one nearest to it ; as, He or I am 
to blame. Either she or they are in fault. Neither he nor 
thou art able to understand it. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

In these sentences the verbs agree in number and person 
with the nominative cases, that stand next to them ; the other 
nominatives governing a verb, understood, namely ; He is to 
blame, or / am to blame. Either she is in fault, or they are 
in fault. Neither he is able to understand it, nor thou art able 
to understand it. 

EXAMPLES. 

I took him to be a man of honor, but I find he has become 
a knave. He has ever lived a holy and a christian life, and 
will, no doubt, die a righteous death. Cares and troubles are 
the common lot of man. Jane, whose book is that ? Mary's. 
Neither the house nor the out-buildings were destroyed. Wit 
is often made the vehicle of malice. 

FALSE GRAMMAR. 

I finds he to be a man of sense. Julia's ornaments becomes 
she mighty much. Either he, or we is wrong. Who did 
that ? Thomas made it. Neither they nor I ivere there. 
He or you is in fault. 



101 

LESSON XXX. 

RULE XIV. 

When an address is made to a person or thing, the Noun 
or Pronoun that is addressed, or spoken to, is always in the 
second person, and in the Nominative Case Independent ; as, 
« O, Jerusalem, Jerusalem, thou that killest the prophets." 
Mr. Smith, I wish to speak with you. James, .come here, 
and you too, Charles, I want to speak to you. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

Jerusalem, thou, Mr. Smith, James, and diaries, are all 
addressed, or spoken to, and are all of the second person, be- 
cause we cannot address any other than a second person. 
They are all in the nominative case independent, because 
they are not the agents of any action, being, or passion, or the 
object of any action or relation, but are thus addressed, mere- 
ly to call their attention, or to express, more emphatically, 
our feelings, or our sympathy ; as, O, Absalom, my son, my 
son, would to God I had died for thee. 

RULE XV. 

Nouns and Pronouns in the third person, or spoken of, 
when their case depends on no other word, are in the Nomi- 
native Case Independent ; as, He, what has he to do with it 1 
Your fathers, where are they ? And the prophets, do they 
live for ever ? " They, obdurate pagans ! they our breth- 
ren 



?» 



ILLUSTRATION, 



Here the nouns and pronouns, printed in italic, namely, 
he, fathers, prophets, they, and pagans, are all spoken of, but 
their case not depending on any other word, they are all in 
the nominative case independent. 

RULE XVI. 

A Noun or Pronoun, joined with a Participle, and whose 
Case does not depend on any other w T ord in the sentence, is 
in the Nominative Case Independent ; as, The sun having 
risen, they resumed their journey. He being present, order 



10? RULES. 

was restored. The commander being slain, the army was 
routed. The ship proving leaky, the voyage was abandoned. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

In the preceding examples, sun, he, commander, and ship, 
are nouns joined to the participles, having risen, being, being 
slain, and proving, and do not depend on any word in the 
sentence for government ; they are of course in the nomina- 
tive case independent. 

RULE XVII. 

Relative and Personal Pronouns must agree with their An- 
tecedents, in gender, number, and person ; as, The man whom 
I saw. The house which he built. The woman whom we 
saw. The horse that was stolen is found. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

In the first sentence, man is the antecedent, third person, 
singular number, and masculine gender ; whom is the rela- 
tive, referring to man, and, of course, must be in the same 
person, number, and gender. House is the antecedent, third 
person, singular, and neuter gender. Which is the relative, 
and is of the same person, number, and gender. Woman is 
the antecedent, feminine gender, and requires the relative, 
whom, to be in the feminine gender. Horse is the antecedent 
and requires the relative, that, to be in the same person, num- 
ber, and gender. 

RULE XVIII. 

Personal Pronouns are often used as the antecedent to Rel- 
ative Pronouns ; as, He who studies will improve. She 
who sang so sweetly, was Miss Smith. It was I who brought 
the news. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

Here, the pronouns, he, she, and /, are the antecedents to 
the relatives, who, and require that, in each sentence, who be 
made to agree with each. 

RULE XIX. 

When no other Nominative Case comes between the Rel- 
ative and the Verb, the Relative will be the Nominative 






RULES. 103 

Case ; as, The boy who loves his book will improve. The 
house which was built is an elegant one. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

Here, boy and house are the antecedents ; who and which 
are the relatives; loves and was built are the verbs. Between 
these relatives and the verbs, there is no nominative case, 
therefore the relatives are the nominative case to those verbs. 

RULE XX. 

When there is a Nominative Case between the Relative 
and the Verb, the Relative is in the Objective Case, and is 
governed by the Verb, or by a Preposition ; as, The gentle- 
man whom we met was Mr. Adams. The book that you 
bought is an excellent one. The lady of whom you spoke 
has left town. The means by which they live are unknown. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

In the two first sentences, whom and that are relatives, be- 
tween which and the verbs, met and bought, there is a nomi- 
native case, namely, we and you. Those relatives, therefore, 
are in the objective case, and governed by the verbs, met and 
bought. In the two last sentences, the relatives, whom and 
which, are in the objective case, and governed by the prepo- 
sitions, of and by. 

RULE XXI, 

The Relative Pronouns, who, which, what, and that, with 
all their compounds, when they are in the Objective Case, 
are always placed before the Verb that governs them ; as, 
Whom ye ignorantly worship. The prospect which we saw 
was beautiful. The great fortune that he left is all destroyed 
by extravagance. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

Here, the relatives, whom, which, and that, are all in the 
objective case, and placed before the verbs, worship, saw, and 
left, by which they are respectively governed. 

EXAMPLES. 

Good morning, Mr. Jones ; how do you do, sir ? He, a 
gentleman ! as well may you call a Choctaw a gentleman, as 



104 



RULES. 



him. The house being set on fire, the inmates all perished 
in the flames. The men who were engaged in the nefarious 
traffic, have all been arrested. He who will not obey, must 
be punished. Whomsoever we meet, we will arrest. Colonel, 
your most obedient and very humble servant. I saw a man 
whom I took to be him. O, the poverty, vice, and wretch- 
edness, that is brought upon thousands by intemperance. 

FALSE GRAMMAR. 

Good morning, Mr. Smith ; how does thou do ? Them gen- 
tlemen ! as well may thee call the Hottentots gentlemen, as 
they. The city been taken, the inhabitants was put to the 
sword. The villains what was engaged in the business was 
all been taken into custody. He whom will not submitest, 
should been punishes. Whoever we meet with, us will ac- 
costed. We see the lady which we took to be she. Captain, 
we am your obedient servant. 



LESSON XXXI. 
RULE XXII. 

When a Relative Pronoun is preceded by two Nominative 
Cases of different persons, it may agree with either, as the 
sense may most properly require ; as, I am the man ivho 
command you ; or i" am the man who commands you. Thou 
art the General who commandest the army $ or thou art lie 
who commands the army. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

In the first example, who agrees with I for its antecedent, 
and governs the verb, command, in the first person. In the 
second, who agrees with he for its antecedent, and governs the 
verb, commands, in the third person. In the third, ivho agrees 
with thou, in the second person, and governs its verb in the 
second person. In the last example, who agrees with he, in 
the third person, and governs its verb in the third person. 

RULE XXIII. 

If the three Personal Pronouns, /, thou, and he or she, are 
connected by the Conjunction^ and, the Verb must be in the 



RULES. 105 

first person, plural, to agree with them. And if the second 
and third persons, thou and he or she are connected, the Verb 
must be in the second person, plural ; as, I, and thou, and he, 
are mutual friends ; we are happy in the confidence of each 
other. Thou and she are happy, because you live in the prac- 
tice of virtue and benevolence. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

When the singular pronouns, of different persons, are thus 
connected, the verb must agree in 'person with the first, m 
preference to the second, or third. The reason is plain. I, 
thou, and he, make we, and of course require the verb to be 
in the first person, plural. Thou and he, or thou and she 
make you, and will require the verb to be in the second person 
plural. 

RULE XXIV. 

When two Nominative Cases, one in the singular, and the 
other in the plural, are connected by the conjunctions or, and 
nor, they require the verb to be in the plural number, and 
the plural nominative should be placed next to the verb ; as, 
neither the captain nor the sailors were rescued. Either 
the President or his advisers are censurable. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

Here it is plain, that sailors and advisers are plural, and 
would require a plural verb for themselves alone, and being 
connected with the singular nouns, captain and President 
cannot do away that requirement. 

RULE XXV. 

The Noun or Pronoun, that follows the Conjunction, than, 
after an Adjective of comparison, is in the Nominative Case 
to a Verb understood ; as, I am older than you. He is a beU 
ter scholar than his brother. James can write better than 
Charles. John studies more than Henry. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

In these sentences it is plain, a verb is understood to com- 
plete the sense ; as, I am older than you are. He is a better 
scholar than his brother is. James can write better than 
Charles can write. John studies more than Henry studies. 

i* 



106 RULES, 



RULE XXVI. 



The Infinitive Mode, or a part of a sentence may often be 
made the Nominative Case to a Verb, and may also be the 
Antecedent to a Relative Pronoun ; as, to love our friends is 
natural to all. To be blind is a great misfortune. We are 
required to fear God and keep his commandments, which is the 
whole duty of man. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

In the two first sentences, to love our friends, and to be 
blind, are both used as the nominative case to the verb, is, 
which follows each. The first member of the next sentence 
is" used as an antecdent to the relative, which-, as, in answer 
to the question, what is the whole duty of man ? the answer 
will be, to fear God, and keep his commandments ; therefore, 
which supplies the place of that part of the sentence, and 
agrees with it as an antecedent. 

RULE XXVII. 

The Infinitive Mode may be governed by a Verb, a Noun, 
an Adjective, a Pronoun, or a Participle ; as, James loves te 
study. He made the sun to shine by day, and the moon to 
give light by night. They are too industrious to spend their 
time for nought. I told him to do it. I am trying to do this 
sum. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

In these sentences, the infinitive mode, to study, is governed 
by the verb, loves. To shine and to give are governed by the 
nouns, sun and moon. To spend is governed by the adjective, 
industrious. To do is governed by the pronoun, him. Tv de, 
in the last sentence, is governed by the participle, trying. 



RULE XXVIIL 

As, when it follows so, and about, when it follows the Verb 
to be, may govern the Infinitive Mode ; as, Do not be so ex- 
travagant as to spend all your earnings. I wish you to come 
soon, so as to be in season. I am about to commence my task. 
They are about to begin their work. 



RULES. 107 

ILLUSTRATION. 

Here, the verbs, to spend and to be, are governed by as. 
The verbs, to commence and to begin, are in the infinitive 
mode, and governed by about. 

RULE XXIX. 

A Verb in the Infinitive Mode, standing independently of 
the rest of the sentence, is in the Infinitive Mode Absolute ; 
as, To confess the truth, I was in fault. To proceed in my 
story, he went to Boston. To conclude my narration, he was 
fined fifty dollars. 

ILLUSTRATION-, 

In the preceding, the infinitive modes, to confess, to proceed, 
and to conclude, are all absolute or independent ; that is, they 
are not governed by any preceding verb, noun, or adjective ; 
nor are they used as a nominative case to any other verb. 

RULE XXX. 

The Verbs that follow, bid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, 
let, and sometimes, behold and have, and some others, are in 
the Infinitive Mode, without having the sign, to, prefixed to 
them ; as, I bade him go. You dare not do it. They need 
not fear him. You must make Charles study his lesson. Did 
you see him take it ? I heard him say it. They felt the 
breeze blow gently over them. Let him go home. Behold 
the gallant bark spread her sails to the breeze. I would have 
him do his duty. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

In the preceding examples, the verbs, go, do, fear, study, 
take, say, blow, go, and spread, are all in the infinitive mode, 
without having the sign, to, prefixed to them. Although the 
sign, to, is understood before each of those infinitive modes, 
custom has established their use without its being expressed. 

RULE XXXI. 

Prepositions govern the Objective Case of Nouns and Pro- 
nouns ; as, They went from Boston to Providence, He is in 



108 RULES. 

town. You will find him at the market. I gave it to Mm, 
He sold the book to me. She is gone over the river. We 

looked through the telescope. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

Here the prepositions, from, to, in, at, over, and through? 
govern the nouns and pronouns after them in the objective 
case, namely, Boston, Providence, town, market, him, me, 
river, and telescope. 

EXAMPLES. 

If thou art the man who hast directed the operations of the 
army, and hast sanctioned the licentious cruelties which the 
soldiers have perpetrated, thou art a monster, unfit to retain 
the shape of man, but shouldst rather be transformed into that 
of the tiger. You and I are perfectly agreed in this matter ;. 
there is no misunderstanding between us. Neither he nor 
they are to be depended on in this matter. Even children, 
in these days, think themselves wiser than their fathers,- To 
rise early, and take the fresh morning air, is very conducive 
to health. To speak plainly, you were much to blame. I 
admire to see children play good-naturedly. I bade him be- 
ware, but he let his enemy take the advantage. " I sat 
down under his shadow with great delight, and his fruit was 
sweet to my taste." 

FALSE GRAMMAR. 

Thou is the person whom liave did this mischief, and you 
shalt made good the damage. If you and I am convinced of 
the truth, what difference do it make to we if others does not 
believe it ? To live soberly, righteously, and godly, in this 
here world, wilt insures happinesses in which that art to come. 
We need not to be of eared, for he will not lets him to hurt us. 
My days is full of sorrow, and my nights is spent in weeping. 



LESSON XXXII 
RULE XXXII. 



Nouns and Pronouns, in the Objective Case, are often gov- 
erned by Prepositions understood ; as, Give me an apple, 



UTILES. 109 

Hand Henry a book. Samuel brought him the news. Daniel 
told you a falsehood. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

Here, me, Henry, Mm, and you, are in the objective case, 
and governed by the preposition, to, understood ; as, Give an 
apple to me. Hand a book to Henry. Samuel brought the 
news to him. Daniel told a falsehood to you. 

RULE XXXIII. 

Active Verbs govern Nouns and Pronouns in the Objective 
Case; as, I love him. We saw them. Henry killed the 
squirrel. She wrote the letter. Peter has found his knife. 
My brother has sold his house. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

In these examples, him, them, squirrel, letter, knife, and 
house, are all in the objective case, and governed by the ac- 
tive verbs, love, saw, killed, wrote? found, and sold* 

RULE XXXIV. 

Active Verbs of asking, teaching, telling, giving, and re- 
ceiving, often govern two Objective Cases, one expressing the 
person, and the other the thing ; as, I asked him a question. 
James teaches him grammar. We told them the story of our 
wrongs. I paid him his wages daily. I have bought my son 
a. farm. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

In these examples, the verbs, asked, teaches, told, paid, and 
bought, are active verbs, and are each followed by two ob- 
jective cases, and may be said to govern them, though, in 
reality, the personal object is governed by a preposition, un- 
derstood, as will readily be seen by transposing the two ob- 
jective cases ; as, I asked a question of him. James teaches 
grammar to him, or teaches him in grammar. We told the 
story of our wrongs to them. I paid his wages to him. I 
.have bought a farm for my son. 

RULE XXXV. 

Passive Verbs of asking, teaching, telling, giving, and re- 
ceiving, may govern an Objective Case ; as, He was asked 



110 RULES. 

the question. He was allowed a seat in the senate. They 
were told the news before he came. They were taught good 
r manners. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

In these examples, question, seat, news, and manners, arc 
nouns in the objective case, and governed by the passive 
verbs, was asked, was allowed, and were told. 

RULE XXXVI. 

Active Participles, like the verbs from which they are de- 
rived, govern the Objective Case ; as, They caught him steal- 
ing the goods. We heard him reading his bible. They found 
him gathering his corn. He is teaching us. We are learn- 
ing them to read. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

Stealing, reading, gathering, teaching, and learning, are 
active participles, and govern the objects, viz., goods, bible, 
corn, us, and them, which follow them, in the objective case, 

RULE XXXVII. 

Participles from Passive and Neuter Verbs have a Nomi- 
native Case after them ; as, Being a man of honor, he kept 
his promise. A pious man, becoming a ruler, will prove a 
blessing to his country. He, being bred. a. soldier, became 
iYie first in his profession. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

Man, ruler, and soldier, are nouns in the nominative case, 
after the neuter and passive participles, being, becoming, and 
being bred. 

RULE XXXVIII. 

All Participles, whether Active, Passive, or Neuter, have 
the same power of government as the Verbs have from which 
they come ; as, He is building a house. They are making 
their fortunes. He is becoming a sober man. His being bred 
a mechanic, has been of great advantage to him. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

In these examples, building and making are participles from 
active verbs, and govern the nouns, house and fori 'lines, in the 






RULES. HI 

objective case. Is becoming and being bred, are participles 
from passive verbs, and take the nouns, man and mechanic, 
after them in the nominative case. 

RULE XXXIX. 

Active Verbs sometimes govern two Nouns in the Objective 
Case, both of which are expressive of things ; as, He makes 
the law his principal study. They make farming their chief 
source of living. She makes the bible her constant companion. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

In the first example, law and study are both governed by 
the active verb, make. Also, in the second and third exam- 
ples, farming and source, as well as bible and companion, are 
governed by the verb make. 

N. B. These examples properly come under the rule pre- 
viously given, that two nouns, signifying the same thing, agree 
in case. 

RULE XL. 

Nouns signifying the time when, and time how long, weight, 
measure, and distance, are put in the Objective Case Absolute ; 
as, I shall visit my brother next summer. They will be in 
Washington next winter. I shall stay in Boston three days. 
He rode ten miles an hour. The house measures forty feet. 
The cistern measures a thousand gallons. The distance is 
forty miles. The town is seven miles square. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

1. Next week and next summer, are nouns signifying the 
time when. 

2. Three days, and an hour, are nouns signifying time how 
long. 

3. Forty feet, and a thousand gallons, are nouns signifying 
measure. 

4. Ten miles, forty miles, and seven miles, are nouns, sig- 
nifying distance, and they are all in the objective case absolute, 
though prepositions may be understood to govern them. 

EXAMPLES. 

Henry, I have bought you a book ; will you give me any 
thing in return for it ? Mary has lost her gloves ; will you 



1 1 2 RULES. 

help her find them ? I asked you a question, but you did not 
hear me. He should be taught better manners. I told you 
the news, last week. We heard him speaking his piece. 
The judge is now delivering his charge to the jurors. He, 
being a learned lawyer, makes an excellent judge. When 
at school, you should make your improvement your first care. 
They will stop in Charleston a few days, and then come on 
to Newport, a month sooner than we expected. The bridge 
is a mile in length* I think I must buy me a horse and car- 
riage. 

FALSE GRAMMAR. 

Thomas, I has buyed you two penknifes : what wilt you 
gave I in return ? Jane have losed her book : can you found 
it for she ? I asks you some questions, as you does not heard 
me. He should had been leached gooder manners. He has 
telled me the glad tidings before you come. The lawyers is 
now pleading the case. The steeple are a hundred feet high, 



LESSON XXXIII. 
RULE XLX. 

A Participle following a Preposition, becomes a Participial 
Noun, and may also govern an Objective Case after it ; as, 
By subduing your passions, you will conquer your worst 
enemy. Keep your hands from doing evil, and your tongue 
from uttering slander. In practising virtue, you will find your 
reward. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

Here, subduing, doing, uttering, and practising, are parti- 
cipial nouns, preceded and governed by the prepositions, by, 
from, and in, and also govern the nouns, passions, evil, slander, 
and virtue, in the objective case. 

RULE XLII. 

A Participle, joined with an Adverb, is Independent ; as, 
His essay, generally speaking, is well written. His whole 
demeanor, strictly speaking, was derogatory. 



EXILES. 113 

ILLUSTRATION. 

In these sentences, the participle, speaking, is connected 
with the two adverbs, generally and strictly, and are entirely 
independent of the sentences in which they stand, having no 
government or agreement with any word in the sentence. 

RULE XLIII. 

A Participle, after a Noun or a Pronoun in the Possessive 
Case, preceded by a Verb, becomes a Participial Noun, in the 
Objective Case, and is governed by the Verb, or by a Prep- 
osition ; as, His parents regret his going away. He now la- 
ments his having neglected his studies. When they heard of 
his being slain, they were much affected. When we hear of 
a good maris dying, we cannot sorrow on his account. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

In the two first sentences, the participles, going and having 
neglected, are in the objective case, and governed by the 
verbs, regret and lament. In the other sentences, being slain, 
and dying, are participial nouns, in the objective case, and 
governed by the preposition, of. 

RULE XLIV, 

Participial Nouns, after a Possessive Case, may often be 
the Nominative Case to a following Verb ; as, A maris con- 
tinuing in sin will prove his destruction. His being appre- 
hended was the cause of the other villairis secreting himself. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

Here, continuing, and being apprehended, are nominatives 
to the verbs, will prove, and was. 

RULE XLV. 

When the present Participle has the definite Article, the, 
before it, the Preposition of, ought always to follow it ; as, 
The making of good laws, and the executing of them, will se- 
cure the happiness of a nation. The loving of our enemies is 
in obedience to the command of God. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

Here, the participles, making, executing, and loving, are 
present participles, and being preceded by the article, the, 



114 RULES. 

and followed by the preposition, of, they are changed into 
nouns, and thus become the nominative cases to the verbs, 
will secure, and is. 

N, B. If either the or of be omitted, we should remember 
to omit both, as one should not be used without the other ; as, 
By loving of our enemies. By shunning of evil. By the 
preaching repentance. These expressions are incorrect. 
They should either be, By the loving of our enemies ; or, By 
loving our enemies. By the shunning of evil ; or, By shun- 
ning evil. By the preaching of repentance ; or, By preach- 
ing repentance. 

RULE XLVI. 

Conjunctions connect together the same parts of speech, 
that is, Nouns with Nouns ; Adjectives with Adjectives ; 
Verbs with Verbs; as, The sun, and moon, and stars, are 
evidences of an Almighty Power. Washington was a great, 
a wise, and a good man. Rosamond reads, and writes, and 
ciphers in school. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

1. Sun, moon, and stars, are nouns, connected by the 
conjunction, and. 

2. Great, wise, and good, are all adjectives, connected by 
and. 

3. Reads, writes, and ciphers, are all verbs, connected 
by and. 

N. B. Adverbs are also connected to adverbs ; as, He 
was carefully, wisely, and judiciously educated. 

RULE XLVII. 

Conjunctions always connect the same Cases of Nouns and 
Pronouns ; as, The meadows and fields are now perfuming 
the air with the sweet and balmy odors of spring. We ram- 
bled over the meadows and fields in search of flowers. Maria 
is her father's, and mother's, and brother's favorite. You, and 
J, and he, are all interested in this affair. This news is 
shocking to them, to you, and to me. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

1. Meadows and fields are nouns, connected in the nomi- 
native case, and govern the verb, are. 



RULES. 115 

2. Meadows and. fields are connected in the objective case, 
and governed by the preposition, over. 

3. Father's, mother's, and brother's, are nouns, connected 
in the possessive case, and possess the noun, favorite. 

4. You, and J, and he, are pronouns, connected in the 
nominative case, and govern the verb, are. 

5. Them, you, and me, are pronouns, connected in the ob- 
jective case, and governed by the preposition, to. 

RULE XLVIII. 

Conjunctions, when they connect words, only, connect verbs 
in the same mode and tense; but when they connect sentences, 
they may connect different modes and different tenses ; as, JDo 
good, and sin not. I shall go to Boston to-morrow, and shall 
attend to the business. He may return, but will not remain* 
We have had a mild winter, and I hope we may have a fruit- 
ful summer. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

1. Do and sin are verbs, and are connected in the imper- 
at : ve mode. 

2. Shall go and shall attend are both connected in the 
same mode and tense ; that is, indicative mode, and first fu- 
ture tense. 

3. May return and will not remain are each members of 
different sentences, connected by but, and are of different 
modes and tenses. 

4. Have had and may have are also parts of different sen- 
tences, connected by and, and are in different modes and 
tenses, namely, indicative mode, perfect tense, and potential 
mode, present tense. 

EXAMPLES. 

In doing good there is great reward, and much satisfaction. 
He is, generally speaking, an excellent writer. They were 
astonished at his being found among the insurgents. A man's 
continuing in transgressing the laws of God and man, will 
surely lead to death. The hurrying of business of any kind 
will never prosper. Men, women, and children, are" alike 
subject to pestilence, disease, and death. We examined all 
the records, manuscripts, and historical sketches of the soci- 



116 RULES. 

ety, but found no mention of the subject we sought. The 
coming of our Saviour was announced by the songs of angels. 

FALSE GRAMMAR. 

. The doing evil will lead to punishment. Them is, gene- 
rally spoken, very good citizens. They was much grieved 
at him being found among the slain. A boy continuing in 
idleness will leads he to vice. The hating our enemies are 
not according to scriptures. In doing of much good we shall 
met a due rewards. Old mans and young mans is equally 
liable to sickness and death. Him and you are both to blame. 
Come, let him and / now plays with they. 



LESSON XXXIV. 

RULE XLIX. 

Conjunctions that imply doubt, condition, or uncertainty, 
require the subjunctive mode after them ; as, Though he slay 
me, yet will I trust in him. Unless ye repent, ye shall all 
likewise perish. Whether you assist me or not, I shall ac- 
complish the task, 

ILLUSTRATION. 

The conjunctions, though, unless, and whether, are all ex- 
pressive of doubt, condition, or uncertainty, and govern the 
verbs, slay, repent, and assist, in the subjunctive mode. 

RULE L, 

The Relative Pronoun, who, when it follows the Conjunc- 
tion, than, is often put in the Objective Case ; as, Moses, than 
whom a meeker man never lived, was not perfect. Solomon, 
than whom a wiser king never reigned, committed many 
errors. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

Here, although there is no verb, or preposition, to govern 
whom, still it is put in the objective case after than. 

N. B. This mode of expression is warranted by some of 
the best writers in the English language ; still it may be 
doubted whether it is the lest mode of expression. 



RULES. 



17 



RULE LT. 

The words, like and unlike, worth and worthy, govern the 
Objective Case ; as, He appears like a gentleman and a schol- 
ar. If it were not he, it was one who looked like him. Though 
you are his brother, you are unlike him in all respects. These 
books are unlike them entirely. It will be well worth your 
time to attend to it. Those trifling things are not ivorth your 
attention. The subject is certainly icorthy consideration. 
And here it may be worthy remark. 

ILLUSTRATION* 

1. In the two first sentences, gentleman, scholar, and him, 
are in the objective case, and governed by like. 

2. In the two next sentences, him and them are in the ob- 
jective case, and governed by unlike. 

3. Time and attention are objectives, governed by worth. 

4. Consideration and remark are in the objective case, and 
governed by worthy. 

RULE LII. 

The cost or worth of a thing, is put in the Objective Case ; 
as, My book cost a dollar. To become learned costs much 
study. The horse is worth forty dollars. This knife is not 
worth two cents. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

Here, dollar and study are nouns, expressive of the cost of 
a thing, and are in the objective case, after the word, cost. 
Forty dollars, and two cents, are expressive of the worth of a 
thing, and are in the objective case, after the word worth. 

RULE LIII. 

When a Present Participle follows a Verb, signifying to 
begin, to avoid, or to omit, it becomes a Participial Noun, in the 
Objective Case; as, Solomon commenced building the temple. 
You should avoid giving offence. I cannot forbear making 
an extract. Omit writing 3 T our copy. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

Here, the participles, building, giving, making, and writings 
are converted into participial, or verbal nouns, and are the 



118 RULES. 

objects of the verbs, commenced, avoid, forbear, and omit, and 
also govern the nouns that follow them, in the objective case* 

RULE LIV. 

Adverbs qualify Verbs, Participles, Adjectives, and other 
Adverbs ; as, The storm rages violently. She is busily study- 
ing her lesson. He is uncommonly industrious. They are 
very profitably employed. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

1. The adverb, violently, qualifies the verb, rages. 

2. The adverb, busily, qualifies the participle, studying. 

3. The adverb, uncommonly, qualifies the adjective, indus- 
trious. 

4. The adverb, very, qualifies the other adverb, 'profitably, 
and profitably also qualifies the verb employed. 

RULE LV. 

Two Negatives in the same sentence, destroy each other, 
and make an Affirmative ; as, I did not do nothing. Nor do 
they not know better. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

Not and nothing are two negatives, and the same as, I did 
do something. Nor and not are also two negatives, and the 
same as, they do know better. 

RULE LVI. 

Double Comparatives and Superlatives are often improperly 
used ; as, These are more better than those are. He Jives a 
more holier life than any of his neighbors. She is the most 
loveliest child, I ever saw. He is the most industriousest man 
in the place. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

In the two first sentences, more better and more holier are 
two, or double comparatives ; that is, better and holier are both 
in the comparative degree, without the word more being pre- 
fixed ; therefore, in both sentences, one of the comparatives 
should be omitted ; as, These are better than those. He lives 
a holier life, or he lives a more holy life than any of his 
neighbors. In the two last sentences, most loveliest and most 



OBSERVATIONS AND REMARKS. 119 

industrionsest, are two, or double superlatives; that is, loveliest 
and industriousest are both in the superlative degree, without 
the word most being prefixed ; therefore, one of the superlative 
forms should be omitted ; as, She is the most lovely child I 
ever saw. He is the most industrious man in the place. 

EXAMPLES. 

Though I give all my substance to feed the poor, and have 
not charity, I am nothing. Saul of Tarsus, than w 7 hom a 
more violent persecutor never lived, became the most eminent 
champion of Christianity. This looks very much like my 
knife. This book is unlike the one 1 gave you. The thing- 
is not worth the trouble of obtaining it. Such trifling things 
are not worthy your consideration, The article is worth the 
full amount you gave for it. His farm cost him five hundred 
dollars. He had commenced building his house, but had 
neglected procuring the necessary materials. He was richly 
rewarded for his labor, in thus minutely calculating all the 
difficulties to be encountered. 1 cannot live an idle life ; I 
must employ my time in doing something. 



LESSON XXXV. 

OBSERVATIONS AND REMARKS ON THE DIFFERENT 
PARTS OF SPEECH, AND THEIR APPROPRIATE USE. 

1. The article, a, is used before nouns in the singular num- 
ber only; as, A man, a house, a town. The article, the, is used 
before nouns both in the singular and plural numbers ; as, 
The man, the men ; the house, the houses ; the town, the tow?is. 

2. The article is omitted before a noun that stands for a 
whole species; as, Man is mortal; that is, all mankind. Some 
nouns, denoting the species, have the article always annexed ; 
as, The elephant is a more sagacious animal than the horse. 
The monkey possesses more cunning than the cat. 

3. When two nouns follow a comparative degree, the 
article should be joined to the first, and not to the last, if both 
refer to the same person or thing ; as, He is a better reader 
than speller. 



120 OBSERVATIONS AND REMARKS 

4. When two or more descriptive adjectives, or epithets, 
belong to the same noun, the article should be placed before 
the first, and omitted before the rest ; as, a red and white 
rose, a blue and white handkerchief, means, a rose, partly red 
and partly white, a handkerchief, partly blue and partly 
white. But when the adjective, or epithet, belongs to differ- 
ent subjects, the article should be prefixed to both ; as, a red 
and a white rose ; that is, a red rose and a white rose. A 
blue and a white handkerchief; that is, a blue handkerchief, 
and a white handkerchief. 

5. The use, or omission of the article before the words 
few and Utile, makes a very nice distinction in the sense of the 

expression; if you say, He conducted with a little decency, 
the expression is positive, and implies a degree of propriety 
or praise. But if you say, He conducted with Utile decency, 
the expression is negative, and implies a want of decorum, 
and a degree of blame. 

6. The noun, and its pronoun, should never be used as 
the nominative case to the same verb ; as, to say, the man 
he is honest, the woman she is amiable, the king he is* just, 
is not correct. We should omit the pronoun, and say, the 
man is honest, the woman is amiable, the king is just. 

7. Prepositions should be placed immediately before the 
nouns and pronouns which they govern, but never before the 
relative, that; as, To whom much is given, of him much shall 
be required. The boy that I spoke to, is Mr. Smith's son. 

8. The preposition, with, is sometimes used to connect 
nouns and pronouns, instead of a conjunction; but two singu- 
lar nouns or pronouns thus connected, require the verb to be 
in the singular ; as, The ship with her cargo was lost. The 
house with the furniture was destroyed. He with his brother 
was drowned. 

9. When we use the article, the, and a numeral adjec- 
tive, before proper nouns, or the names and titles of persons, 
the plural termination should be annexed to the last, or to the 
name of the person ; as, I saw the two Miss Browns. We 
met the three Miss Hoppins. The two Doctor Bowens. The 
two Captain Comstocks. 

10. But, when nouns and titles are spoken of without the 
numeral adjective, the plural termination is annexed to the 
first or title; as, The Misses Brown. The Messrs. Munro. 
The Doctors Bowen. The Captains Comstock. 



ON THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH. 121 

11. When several nouns in the possessive case come to- 
gether, implying common possession, the sign of the possessive 
( 's ) should be annexed to the last, and understood to the oth- 
ers ; as, This is Jane and Mary's book. These are John, 
George, and Henry's playthings. 

12. But when individual possession is implied, the pos- 
sessive form must be annexed to each noun ; as, These books 
are Jane's and Mary's; that is, some are Jane's, and some 
are Mary's. These are (that is, some of them) John's, 
George's, and Henry's playthings. 

13. When this and that, these and those, refer to words or 
subjects previously mentioned, that and those refer to the first 
mentioned subject, this and these to the last ; as, Virtue and 
vice are opposite^; that (virtue) leads to happiness, this (vice) 
to disgrace. Wealth and poverty are both temptations ; that 
{wealth) tends to excite pride, this (poverty) discontent. 

14. When an antecedent includes both persons and things, 
the relative, that, should be used instead of ivho ; as, The man 
and horse that we saw yesterday, are here. 

15. When two objects are compared, the comparative 
degree is generally used ; as, James is older than Henry. 
But when more than two objects are compared, the superlative 
degree is generally used ; as, Mary is the oldest of the three 
daughters. He is the lest scholar in the class. 

16. So is often used, elliptically, for an adjective, a noun, 
and sometimes for a whole sentence ; as, You are well and 
hearty. I am not so; that is, I am not well and hearty. I 
knew Benjamin was a good scholar, and I told you so; that is, 
I told you he was a good scholar. 

17. In the use of verbs and words that in respect to time, 
relate to each other, particular attention should be paid to the 
order of time. An observation or proposition that is at all 
times equally true or false, should be expressed in the present 
tense ; as, He seemed hardly to know that two and two make 
four. The stoics believed that all crimes are equal. 

18. When we speak of an action, commenced in time 
past, as being continued to the present time, it should be ex- 
pressed in the perfect tense, and not in the present ; as, They 
have continued with me now three days ; not, They continue 
with me now three days. I commenced the work in the 
spring and have continued it to the present time ; not, and 
continue it to the present time. 



122 OBSERVATIONS AND REMARKS 

19. When we speak of a subsequent action, or event, fol- 
lowing a previous one, and depending upon it, the first, or 
previous one, should be expressed in the imperfect tense, and 
the latter, or subsequent one, in the perfect tense ; as, " The 
Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away." He made a for- 
tune by speculation, and has spent it in dissipation. 

20. The perfect tense should never be joined with other 
words that express past time ; as, I have teen formerly ac- 
quainted with him, is not correct. It should be, I was form- 
erly acquainted with him. 

21. Of the distinction between the imperfect and the per- 
fect tenses, it may be observed, that when the imperfect tense 
represents an action as past and finished, it represents it as 
being finished for a longer time past than the perfect tense 
represents it. The perfect tense, although it represents an 
action as completely finished, always represents it as being 
very recently accomplished ; as, My father gave me a dollar, 
and I have spent it. Here, the act of giving took place before 
the act of spending. It is improper to say, I have written a 
letter yesterday and wrote another to-day. It should be, I 
wrote a letter yesterday, and have written another to-day. 

22. The auxiliary verbs that form the potential mode, 
are extremely vague and indefinite as respects the time of an 
action or event which they represent. The auxiliaries, may, 
can, and must, sometimes denote present time, and sometimes 
future ; as, Charles may read his lesson. John can write bet- 
ter than Thomas. Come, Mary, you must go to school. 
Here, may, can, and must, denote present time. I may be con- 
vinced of the correctness of your statement, but I do not now 
believe it. Unless I can persuade him to abandon his vicious 
companions, he will be ruined. John is so good a scholar, I 
think I must send him to college. Here, may, can, and must. 
evidently denote future time. 

23. Might, could, ivould, and should, also, sometimes de- 
note present time, sometimes past time, and sometimes future 
time ; as, If I might be allowed to express my mind, I should 
say, you are much to blame. " If the noble lords were as 
well acquainted as I am, with but half the difficulties and de- 
lays occasioned in the courts of justice under the pretence of 
privilege, they ivould not, nay, they could not oppose this bill. ?> 
Here, might, could, would, and should, evidently denote present 
time. He might say so, but he knew better. I tried to do it. 



ON THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH. 123 

but could not. Charles would not try to do it, though his in- 
structor told him he should. Here, might, could, would, and 
should, all denote the imperfect tense. Your son might be- 
come an accomplished scholar, if you would bestow upon him 
the proper means. Were I to see him, 1 think I could prevail 
on him to abandon the project. Could I but see him once 
more, I should be satisfied. Here, might, could, would, and 
shmild, denote future time. 

N. B. From the fo regoing examples it must be plain, that 
these auxiliaries, although said by grammarians to be signs 
of the potential, do not always place the verb in that mode. 
When a verb evidently represents a future action, it must be 
improper to place it in the potential mode, which has no future 
tense. They unquestionably belong more properly to the 
indicative or subjunctive modes, than to the potential. If 
these observations are correct, then it may be laid down as a 
Rule, that when these auxiliaries are used to express a future 
action, without any doubt or condition attached to them, they 
should be parsed in the indicative mode, first future tense ; 
but when preceded by a doubtful conjunction, and denoting 
future time, they belong to the subjunctive mode. Many of 
the best grammarians that have written upon the subject, 
doubt the propriety of allowing the potential mode a place 
among the modes, and some deny it a place altogether ; but, 
as everything goes by fashion, it seems necessary to give it a 
place among the modes. 

25. The preposition, into, is used after verbs of motion, 
and denotes entrance ; as, They went into the house. He 
fell into the water. 

26. The preposition, in, is used after verbs of motion and 
rest; as, They rode in the stage. They reside in Boston. 
He sits in a chair. 

27. At is used before single houses, small towns and vil- 
lages, and before towns and cities in foreign countries ; as, 
He is at home. They are at Mr. Smith's. I was at New- 
port last week. He lives at York, at Naples, at Rome. 

28. In is used before large towns and cities, and before 
the names of slates and countries ; as, I was in New- York. 
He is in Philadelphia, in Boston, in London, in Massachusetts. 

29. When we speak of the residence of a person, we say 
he lives in Washington-street, in State-street. If necessary 



124 OBSERVATIONS AND REMARKS. 

to name the number of a person's residence, we say he lives 
at number forty-five, State-street. 

30. The conjunction, as, often connects nouns that are in 
apposition and agree in case ; as, He offered himself as a 
soldier. They employed him as an assistant. He engaged 
as a clerk. 

31. As is allowed by all grammarians to have the force 
of a relative pronoun when it follows such, but that is not the 
only situation in which as has the nature and force of a rela- 
tive. It is often used as a relative when preceded by other 
words conveying a similar meaning to such ; and also in the 
following sentences. He lives as becomes a christian. She 
dresses as befits her station. He conducts himself in all re- 
spects as becomes the gentleman. Here, as is a relative, 
and the nominative case to the verbs, becomes and befits. 

32. As is also often used instead of the compound rela- 
tive, what, and conveys the same meaning ; as, you do not 
speak as you think. Do you mean as you say ? I wish you 
to write as I shall dictate. That is, you do not speak what 
you think. Do you mean what you say ? I wish you to 
write what I shall dictate. 

33. Interjections often have an objective case after them, 
but do not govern it. When an objective case follows an 
interjection, it is either in the objective, absolute, or governed 
by a verb or preposition understood ; as, Ah, me! that is, 
Ah ! pity me ! or have compassion on me. 

34. When a pronoun of the first person follows an inter- 
jection, it is generally in the objective case; as, Ah, me! But 
when the second person is used after an interjection, it will 
be in the nominative case; as, O thou great Creator. O, ye 
simple ones. 

35. The interjection, O, is used to express an exclama- 
tion or wish, and should be prefixed to nouns and pronouns, 
only when a direct address is made; as, O, virtue, how ami- 
able thou art. O Jerusalem ! Jerusalem ! thou that killest 
the prophets ! 

36. The interjection, Oh ! is used to express sudden 
emotion, pain, sorrow, or surprise, and should be separated 
from the following word by an exclamation point; as, Oh! 
you villain ! Oh ! what a sight is here ! 

37. Avoid using ungrammatical and improper phrases. 
Never say, give me thai there book, or them there books •, 



LESSONS FOR EXERCISE IN PARSING. 125 

nor them there books are mine. Them pens want mending. 
He said how he wanted it. He says how he did it ; or he says 
he done it. But say, give me that book, or those books. 
Those books are mine. Those pens want mending. He 
said he wanted it. He says he did it. 

38, Say I cannot, instead of I can't. I will not, instead 
of I won't. I do not, instead of I don't. I did not, instead of 
I didn't. I would not, instead of I wouldn't. I could not, 
I should not, I must not, I ought not, instead of I couldn't, 
I shouldn't, I mustn't, I oughtn't. 

N. B. Great pains should be taken by teachers as well 
as by parents, to prevent children from imbibing a habit of 
using ungrammatical and improper expressions, or phrases ; 
as such habits, contracted in youth, will often continue through 
life. 



LESSONS FOR EXERCISE IN PARSING. 
LESSON I. 

Prosperity is not without its troubles, nor adversity without 
its comforts. 

The consideration of a greater evil, is a sort of remedy 
against a less. 

They are always impaired by affliction, who are not im- 
proved by it. 

A virtuous man is more peaceable in adversity, than a 
wicked man in prosperity. 

Divine Providence always places the remedy near the evil. 

There is not any duty to which Providence has not an- 
nexed a blessing ; nor any affliction for which virtue has not 
provided a remedy. 

Resignation to the divine will is a noble and needful lesson. 

Pity is but an imaginary aid ; and yet, were it not for that, 
sorrow would be, many times, utterly insupportable. 

Mirth is by no means a remedy for grief; on the contrary, 
it raises and inflames it. 

If some are refined like gold in the furnace of affliction, 
there are many more that, like chaff, are consumed in it. 

L 



126 LESSONS FOE 

He who is puffed up by the first gale of prosperity, will 
surely bend beneath the first blast of adversity. 

Events which have the appearance of misfortune, often 
prove a happy source of future felicity. 

The utmost we can hope for in this world, is contentment ; 
if we aim at any thing higher, we shall meet with nothing 
but grief and disappointment. 

We should direct all our studies and endeavors to making 
ourselves easy now, and happy hereafter. 

A contented mind is the greatest blessing any one can en- 
joy in this life. 

If you can but live free from want, care for no more, for 
the rest is but vanity. 

What can he want who is already content, who lives 
within the limits of his circumstances, and who has said to 
his desires, " thus far shall ye go, and no farther ?" 



LESSON II. 

An angry man who suppresses his passions, thinks worse 
than he speaks ; and an angry man that will chide, speaks 
worse than he thinks. 

In all things mistakes are excusable ; but an error that pro- 
ceeds from any good principle, leaves no room for resentment. 

He that waits an opportunity for acting his revenge, 
watches to do himself an injury. 

One unquiet disposition disturbs the peace and harmony of 
a whole family, or society ; as one jarring instrument will 
spoil a whole concert. 

Reason in anger, like a ship in the tempest, is hurried away 
by the waves and often overset. 

He that is always angry with his sins, will seldom sin in 
his anger. 

He that spares in every thing, is a niggard ; and he who 
spares in nothing, is profuse. 

Interest speaks all sorts of languages, and acts all sorts of 
parts. Virtues are lost in interest, as rivers in the sea. 

History tells us of illustrious villains, but there never was 
an illustrious miser in the nature. 



EXERCISE IN PARSING. 127 

What madness it is for a man to starve himself to enrich 
his heir, and to turn a friend into an enemy ; for his joy at 
your death, will be in proportion to what you leave him. 

The tallest trees are most in the power of the wind, and 
ambitious men, of the blasts of fortune. 

We may hate men's vices without any ill-will to their per- 
sons ; but we cannot help despising those that have no kind 
of virtue to recommend them. 

FALSE GRAMMAR, 

Some men is silent for want of matter or assurance ; and 
some art talkative for want of sense. Modesty in your dis- 
course will gives an lustre to truth, and a excuse to your er- 
rors. Much tongue and much judgment seldom goes togeth- 
er, for talking and thinking is two quite different faculties. 
Discretion of speech are more than eloquence, and to speaks 
agreeably, rnore than to speaks in exact order. 



LESSON III. 

There is nothing that gives us so pleasing a prospect of 
human nature, as the contemplation of wisdom and beauty. 

Nothing can atone for the want of modesty and innocence, 
without which, beauty is ungraceful, and quality contemptible* 

Let a woman be decked with all the embellishments of art 
and care of nature, yet if boldness be read in her counte- 
nance it blots all the lines of beauty. 

The plainer the dress, with the greater lustre does beauty 
appear. 

An inviolable fidelity, good humor, and complacency of 
temper in a woman, outlive all the charms of a fine face, and 
make the decays of it invisible. 

Virtue is the greatest ornament, and good sense the best 
equipage. 

Outward beauty hath no charm equal to the inward beauty 
of the mind. 

Beauty is a flower that soon withers ; health changes, and 
strength abates ; but innocency is immortal, and a comfort 
both in life and death. 



128 LESSONS FOR 

He that receives a benefit without being thankful, robs the 
giver of his just reward. 

It is a character of an unworthy nature, to write injuries 
in marble, and benefits in dust. 

He who receives a good turn should never forget it ; hut 
he who does one should never remember it. 

That which is given with pride and ostentation, is rather 
an ambition than a bounty. 

Liberality is never so bountiful or engaging, as when the 
hand is concealed that bestows the gift. 

By compassion we make others' miseries our own ; and, 
by relieving them, we at the same time relieve ourselves. 



FALSE GRAMMAR. 

He that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. Who 
should I meet but my old friend ? It is not me that he is angry 
with. Let that remain a secret between you and I. Him 
having ended his discourse, the company would separate. 
The work has been finished last week. He had been out of 
employment this fortnight. We hoped to have seen you. 



LESSON IV. 

Peace of mind is upon earth the supreme good. Simplicity 
of heart will procure this invaluable blessing to the wise mor- 
tal, who, renouncing the noisy pleasures of the world, sets 
bounds to his desires and inclinations, and cheerfully submits 
himself to the decrees of heaven. 

How refined our sentiments become when the tempests of 
life have subsided, and those misfortunes which caused our 
afflictions have vanished. 

The heart, to taste the charms of retirement, need not be 
without emotion. 

The view of an agreeable landscape, excites the softest 
emotions, and gives birth to pleasing and virtuous sentiments. 

The imagination spreads a touching and seductive charm 
over every object, provided we are surrounded by freedom 
and tranquillity. 



EXERCISE IN PARSING. 



129 



O how easy it is to renounce noisy pleasures and tumultu- 
ous assemblies, for the enjoyment of that philosophic melan- 
choly which solitude inspires. 

There are no sensations, however painful, which are not 
vanquished by those serious but agreeable emotions, and by 
those soft reveries, to which the surrounding tranquillity invites 
the mind. 

The solitude of retirement, and the awful silence of all 
nature, impress an idea of the happy contrast between sim- 
plicity and grandeur. 

Our feelings become more exquisite, and our admiration 
more lively, in proportion to the pleasures we receive. 

O, let not a solitary man, whose heart is warmed by senti- 
ments noble and refined, ever be thought unhappy. 

FALSE GRAMMAR. 

The man which do not ask for more enjoyment than him 
possesses are completely happy. Content must always derive 
his source from the heart ; and in solitude the bosom dilate 
more easier to receives it. In solitude the tranquillity of na- 
ture glidest into the heart. 



LESSON V. 

Cicero says, " Why should we dissemble what it is impos- 
sible for us to conceal ? Why should we not be proud of 
confessing candidly, that we all aspire to fame ? The love of 
praise influences all mankind, and the greatest minds are most 
susceptible of it. The philosophers, who most preach up a 
contempt for fame, prefix their names to their works ; and the 
very performance sin which they deny ostentation, are evident 
proofs of their vanity and love of praise. Virtue requires no 
other reward for all the toil and dangers to which she exposes 
herself, than that of fame and glory. Take away this flat- 
tering reward, and what would remain in the narrow career 
of life to prompt her to exertion ? If the mind could not 
launch into the prospect of futurity, were the operations of 
the soul to be limited to the space that bounds those of the 
body, she would not weaken herself by constant fatigues, nor 
i* 



130 LESSONS FOR 

weary herself by continued watchings and anxieties ; she 
would not think even life itself worthy a struggle. But there 
lives in the breast of every good man a certain principle 
which unceasingly prompts and inspirits to the pursuit of 
fame beyond the present hour ; a fame not commensurate 
with our mortal existence, but co-extensive with the latest 
posterity." 

FALSE GRAMMAR. 

Can them, who every day exposes ourselves to dangers for 
our country, and has never passed one moments of our lives 
without anxiety and trouble, meanly thinks that all conscious- 
ness shalt be buried with we in the grave ? For my part, at 
least, me acknowledges, that in all mine actions, me conceiv- 
edst that me was disseminating and transmitting mine fame to 
the most remotest corners nor the most latest ages of the world. 



LESSON VI. 

SPEECH OF THE EARL OF CHATHAM. 

I cannot, my lords, I will not, join in congratulation on 
misfortune and disgrace. This, my lords, is a perilous and 
tremendous moment ; it is not a time for adulation ; the 
smoothness of flattery cannot save us in this rugged and aw- 
ful crisis. It is now necessary to instruct the throne in the 
language of truth. We must, if possible, dispel the delusion 
and darkness which envelop it ; and display, in its full danger 
and genuine colors, the ruin which is brought to our doors. 
Can ministers still presume to expect support in their infatua- 
tion ? Can parliament be so dead to its dignity and duty, as 
to give its support to measures thus obtruded and forced upon 
it ? Measures, my lords, which have reduced this late flour- 
ishing empire to scorn and contempt. But yesterday, and 
England might have stood against the world ; now, none so 
poor as to do her reverence ! The people, whom we at first 
despised as rebels, but whom we now acknowledge as enemies, 
are abetted against us, supplied with every military store, 
their interest consulted, and their ambassadors entertained by 



EXERCISE IN PARSING. 131 

our inveterate enemy ; and ministers do not, and dare not, 
interpose with dignity or effect. The desperate state of your 
army abroad is in part known. No man more highly esteems 
and honors the English troops, than I do : I know their virtues 
and their valor. 

FALSE GRAMMAR. 

1 knows them can accomplishes any thing but impossibili- 
ties ; and me knows that the conquest of English America am 
an impossibility. What art your present situation there ? 
Us does not knows the worst : but we knowest that in three 
campaign we have did nothing and suffered much. 



LESSON VII. 
THE GRAVE.— By Montgomery, 

There is a calm for those who weep, 
A rest for weary pilgrims found, 
They softly lie and sweetly sleep, 
Low in the ground. 

The storm that wrecks the wintry sky, 
No more disturbs their deep repose, 
Than summer evening's latest sigh, 
That shuts the rose. 

I long to lay this painful head 
And aching heart beneath the soil, 
To slumber in that dreamless bed, 
From all my toil. 

For misery stole me at my birth, 
And cast me helpless on the wild ; 
I perish : O my mother earth, 
Take home thy child. 

On thy dear lap, these limbs, reclined, 
Shall gently moulder into thee ; 
Nor leave one wretched trace behind, 
Resembling me. 



13£ LESSONS FOK 

Art thou a wretch of hope forlorn. 
The victim of consuming care ? 
Is thy distracted conscience torn 
By fell despair? 

Whate'er thy lot, whoe'er thou be, 
Confess thy folly, kiss the rod ; 
And in thy chastening sorrows see, 
The hand of God. 

A bruised reed he will not break ; 
Afflictions all his children feel ; 
He wounds them for his mercy's sake f 
He wounds to heal. 

The soul of origin divine, 
God's glorious image, freed from clay r 
In heaven's eternal sphere shall shine, 
A star of day. 



LESSON VIIL 

PSALM CXXXIX- 

O Lord, thou hast searched me and known me. Thou 
knowest my downsitting and mine uprising, thou understand - 
est my thoughts afar off. Thou compassest my path, and 
my lying down, and art acquainted with all my ways. For 
there is not a word in my tongue, but lo, O Lord, thou know- 
est it altogether. Thou hast beset me behind and before, and 
laid thy hand upon me. Such knowledge is too wonderful 
for me : it is high, I cannot attain unto it. Whither shall I 
go from thy spirit ? or whither shall I flee from thy presence ? 
If I ascend into heaven, thou art there : if I make my bed in 
hell, behold thou art there. If I take the wings of the morn- 
ing and dwell in the uttermost parts of the earth, even there 
shall thy hand lead me, and thy right hand shall hold me. 
If I say, surely darkness shall cover me, even the night shall 
be light about me : yea the darkness hideth not from thee ; 
but the night shineth as the day : the darkness and the light 
are both alike to thee. I will praise thee, for I am fearfully 



EXERCISE IN PARSING. 133 

and wonderfully made : marvellous are thy works ; and that 
my soul knoweth right well. Thine eyes did see my sub- 
stance, yet being imperfect ; and in thy book all my members 
were written, which in continuance were fashioned, when as 
yet there were none of them. How precious also are thy 
thoughts unto me, O God ! how great is the sum of them ! 
If I should count them, they are more in number than the 
sand : when I awake, I am still with thee. 

FALSE GRAMMAR, 

Truth and sincerity has all the advantages of appearance 
nor many more. If the show of any thing are good, I be 
sure the reality am better : for why do any man dissembles, 
or seemeth to been who which he are not, but because him 
thinkest it good to had the qualities he pretend to had ? Now 
the bestest way for a man to seemeth to been any thing, am 
to been in reality what him would seemeth to been. 



LESSON IX. 
THE HERMIT.— By Beattie. 

At the close of the day, when the hamlet is still, 

And mortals the sweets of forgetfulness prove, 
When nought but the torrent is heard on the hill, 

And nought but the nightingale's song in the grove, 
'T was then, by the cave of a mountain reclined, 

A hermit his nightly complaint thus began : 
Tho' mournful his numbers, his soul was resigned ; 

He thought as a sage, though he felt as a man. 

Ah ! why thus abandon'd to sorrow and wo ? 

Why thus, lonely Philomel, flows thy sad strain ? 
For Spring shall return, and a lover bestow ; 

And thy bosom no trace of misfortune retain. 
Yet if pity inspire thee, O, cease not thy lay ! 

Mourn, sweetest complainer ; man calls thee to mourn 
O soothe him, whose pleasures, like time pass away ! 

Full quickly they pass — but they never return. 



134 LESSONS FOR 

Now gliding remote, on the verge of the sky, 

The moon, half extinct, a dim crescent displays ; 
But lately I marked, when majestic on high 

She shone, and the planets were lost in her blaze. 
Roll on, then, fair orb, and with gladness pursue 

The path that conducts thee to splendor again : 
But man's faded glory no change shall renew ; 

Ah, fool ! to exult in a glory so vain ! 

? T is night, and the landscape is lovely no more ; 

I mourn, but ye woodlands, I mourn not for you ; 
For morn is approaching, your charms to restore, 

Perfumed with fresh fragrance, and glitt'ring with dew* 
Nor yet for the ravage of winter I mourn ; 

Kind nature the embryo blossom will save : 
But when shall spring visit the mould'ring urn ? 

O when shall it dawn on the night of the grave 1 

'T was thus, by the glare of false science betrayed^ 

That leads to bewilder, and dazzles to blind ; 
My thoughts wont to roam, from shade onward to shade r 

Destruction before me, and sorrow behind. 
O pity, great Father of light, then I cried, 

Thy creature who fain would not wander from thee ! 
Lo, humbled in dust, I relinquish my pride ; 

From doubt and from darkness thou only canst free*. 

And darkness and doubt are now flying away ; 

No longer I roam in conjecture forlorn ; 
So breaks on the traveller, faint and astray, 

The bright and the balmy effulgence of morn. 
See Truth, Love, and Mercy, in triumph descending, 

And Nature all glowing in Eden's first bloom, 
On the cold cheek of Death, smiles and roses are blending*. 

And beauty immortal awakes from the tomb. 



LESSON X. 

FALSE GRAMMAR, 



Reading art to the mind, whom exercise am to the body ; 
as by the one, health are preserved, and by the other, virtue 



EXERCISE IN PARSING. 135 

art kept alive. We should not reads a books at purpose to 
find its faults, but purely to understands it. By reading, us 
enjoys the dead, by conversation, the living, and by contem- 
plation, ourselfs. It must been acknowledge that slow read- 
ing are the most quickest and most surer way to knowledge. 
If we wouldst perpetuate our fame, nor reputation, we must 
does things worth writing, or writes things worth reading. 
Many great readers loads thems memories, without exercising 
thems judgment, and makes lumber rooms of their head, in- 
stead of furnishing they usefully. Nothing in this life, after 
health and virtue, are more estimable than knowledge ; nor 
are there any thing so easily attained, or so cheaply pur- 
chases. In the world you is subject to every fools humor ; 
in a library you canst make every wit subject to yours. We 
shouldst never reads any thing but with a view of improving 
their minds, nor regulating their conduct. 



LESSON XI. 
THE PRODIGAL SON.— Luke XV. 

And Jesus said, a certain man had two sons. And the 
younger of them said to his father, Father, give me the portion 
of goods that falleth to me. And he divided to them his living. 
And not many days after, the younger son gathered all to- 
gether, and toot his journey into a far country, and there 
wasted his substance with riotous living. And when he had 
spent all, there arose a mighty famine in that land ; and he 
began to be in want. And he went and joined himself to a 
citizen of that country : and he sent him into his fields to feed 
swine. And he would fain have filled himself with the husks 
that the swine did eat ; but no man gave unto him. And 
when he came to himself, he said, how many hired servants 
of my father have bread enough and to spare, and I perish 
with hunger ! I will arise and go to my father, and will say 
unto him, Father, I have sinned against heaven and before 
thee, and am no more worthy to be called thy son ; make me 
as one of thy hired servants. And he arose and came to his 
father. But when he was yet a great way off, his father 
saw him, and had compassion, and ran and fell on his neck 



136 LESSONS FOR EXERCISE IN PARSING. 

and kissed him. And the son said unto him, Father, I have 
sinned against heaven, and in thy sight, and am no more 
worthy to be called thy son. But the father said to his ser- 
vants, Bring forth the best robe, and put it on him ; and put a 
ring on his hand and shoes on his feet. And bring hither the 
fatted calf and kill it ; and let us eat and be merrv : for this 
my son was dead and is alive again ; he was lost, and is 
found, 

FALSE GRAMMAR. 

Letest not thy hours be spended at idleness, but lets them 
be employed to some usefully occupation. When thee is tired 
in labor, sit thee down and rest : and when thee feels thy 
selves refreshed, apply thee's self again to labor and thou 
will be rewarded. 



LESSON XII. 

FROM THE GRAVE.— By Blair. 

Invidious Grave ! how dost thou rend in sunder, 

Whom love has knit and sympathy made one ! 

A tie more stubborn far than nature's band. 

Friendship ! mysterious cement of the soul ; 

Sweetner of life, and solder of society, 

I owe thee much. Thou hast deserved from me, 

Far, far beyond what I can ever pay. 

Oft have I proved the labors of thy love, 

And the warm efforts of the gentle heart, 

Anxious to please. Oh ! when my friends and I 

In some thick wood have wandered heedless on, 

Hid from the vulgar eye, and set us down 

Upon the sloping cowslip-covered bank, 

Where the pure limpid stream has slid along 

In grateful errors through the underwood, 

Sweet murmuring : methought the shrill -ton gued thrush. 

Mended his song of love ; the sooty blackbird 

Mellow'd his pipe, and softened every note ; 

The eglantine smelled sweeter, and the rose 

Assumed a die more deep ; whilst every flower 



LESSONS FOR EXERCISE IN PARSING. 137 

Vied with its fellow-plant in luxury 

Of dress. Oh ! then the longest summer's day 

Seemed too, too much in haste : still the full heart 

Had not imparted half; 't was happiness 

Too exquisite to last. Of joys departed, 

Not to return, how painful the remembrance ! 

Dull Grave ! thou spoiPst the dance of youthful blood, 
Strik'st out the dimple from the cheek of mirth, 
And every smirking feature from the face ; 
Branding our laughter with the name of madness* 
Where are the jesters now ? the men of health, 
Complexion ally pleasant ? Where the droll, 
Whose every look and gesture was a joke 
To clapping theatres, and shouting crowds, 
And made ev'n thick-lip'd musing melancholy 
To gather up her face into a smile, 
Before she was aware ? Ah ! sullen now 
And dumb as the green turf that covers them, 



LESSON XIII. 
SPRING.— Thomson's Seasons. 

Come, gentle Spring, ethereal mildness, come, 
And from the bosom of yon dropping cloud, 
While music wakes around, veiled in a shower 
Of shadowy roses, on our plains descend. 

From the moist meadow to the withered hill, 
Led by the breeze, the vivid verdure runs, 
And swells, and deepens, to the cherished eye. 
The hawthorn whitens ; and the juicy groves 
Put forth their buds, unfolding by degrees, 
Till the whole leafy forest stands displayed, . 
In full luxuriance to the sighing gales ; 
Where the deer rustle through the twining brake. 
And the birds sing concealed. At once, arrayed 
In all the colors of the flushing year, 
By Nature's swift and secret working hand, 
The garden glows, and fills the lib'ral air 
With lavish fragrance ; while the promis'd fruit 

M 



138 LESSONS FOR 

Lies yet a little embryo, unperceived, 

Within its silken folds. Now, from the town, 

Buried in smoke, and sleep, and noisome damps, 

Oft let me wander o'er the dewy fields, 

Where freshness breathes, and dash the trembling drops 

From the bent bush, as through the verdant maze 

Of sweet-brier hedges I pursue my walk ; 

Or taste the smell of daisy ; or ascend 

Some eminence, Augusta, in thy plain, 

And see the country, far diffused around, 

One boundless blush, one white empurpled shower 

Of mingled blossoms ; when the raptured eye 

Hurries from joy to joy, and, hid beneath 

The fair profusion, yellow Autumn spies : 

Hail, Source of Being ! Universal Soul 
Of heaven and earth ! Essential Presence, hail ! 
At thy command the vernal sun awakes 
The torpid sap, detruded to the root 
By wintry winds ; that now in fluent dance, 
And lively fermentation, mounting, spreads 
All this innumerous-colored scene of things. 



LESSON XIV. 
SUMMER.— Thomson's Seasons, 

How changed the scene ! in blazing height of noon. 

The sun, oppressed, is plunged in thickest gloom. 

Still horror reigns, a dreary twilight round, 

Of struggling night and day malignant mixed, 

For, to the hot equator crowding fast, 

Where, highly rarefied, the yielding air 

Admits their stream, incessant vapors roll, 

Amazing clouds on clouds continual heaped ; 

Or whirled tempestuous by the gusty wind, 

Or silent borne along, heavy and slow, 

With the big stores of steaming oceans charged. 

Mean time amid these upper seas, condensed 

Around the cold aerial mountain's brow, 

And by conflicting winds together dashed, 



EXERCISE IN PARSING. 139 

The thunder holds his black tremendous throne, 
From cloud to cloud the rending lightnings rage, 
Till, in the furious elemental war 
Dissolved, the whole precipitated mass, 
Unbroken floods, and solid torrents, pours. 
Down comes a deluge of sonorous hail, 
Or prone-descending rain. Wide rent, the clouds 
Pour a whole flood ; and yet, its flame unquenched, 
The unconquerable lightning struggles through, 
Ragged and fierce, or in red whirling balls, 
And fires the mountains with redoubled rage. 
Black from the stroke above, the smouldering pine 
Stands a sad shattered trunk ; and, stretched below, 
A lifeless group, the blasted cattle lie. 
Here the soft flocks, with the same harmless look 
They wore alive, and ruminating still 
In fancy's eye. Struck on the castled cliff, 
The venerable tower and spiry fane 
Resign their aged pride. The gloomy woods 
Start at the flash, and from their deep recess, 
Wide flaming out, their trembling inmates shake. 
Guilt hears appalled, with deeply troubled thought ; 
And yet, not always on the guilty head 
Descends the fatal flash. 



LESSON XV. 
AN EXTRACT.— Blair. 

Poor man ! how happy once in ihy first estate ! 
When yet but warm from thy great Maker's hand, 
He stamped thee with his image, and, well pleased, 
Smiled on his last fair work. Then all was well. 
Sound was the body, and the soul serene ; 
Like two sweet instruments, ne'er out of tune, 
That play their several parts. Nor head, nor heart 
Offered to ache ; nor was there cause they should ; 
For all was pure within : no fell remorse, 
Nor anxious castings up of what may be, 



140 LESSONS FOR 

Alarmed his peaceful bosom. Summer seas 

Show not more smooth, when kissed by southern winds 

Just ready to expire. Scarce importuned, 

The generous soil, with a luxuriant hand, 

Offered the various produce of the year, 

And every thing most perfect in its kind. 

Blessed ! thrice blessed days ! But ah, how short ! 

Blessed as the pleasing dreams of holy men ! 

But fugitive like those, and quickly gone. 

Oh ! slipp'ry state of things ! What sudden turns ! 

What strange vicissitudes in the first leaf 

Of man's sad history ! To-day most happy, 

And ere to-morrow's sun has set, most abject. 

How scant the space between these vast extremes ! 

Thus fared it with our sire. Not long he enjoyed 

His paradise. Scarce had the happy tenant 

Of the fair spot, due time to prove its sweets, 

Or sum them up, when straight he must be gone, 

Ne'er to return again. Like one that is condemned, 

Fain would he trifle time with idle talk, 

And parley with his fate, but 't is in vain. 

Not all the lavish odors of the place, 

Offered in incense, can procure his pardon, 

Or mitigate his doom. A mighty angel, 

With flaming sword forbids his longer stay, 

And drives the loiterer forth ; nor must he take a 

Last and farewell round. At once he lost 

His glory, and his God. 



LESSON XVI. 
STANZAS WRITTEN AT MIDNIGHT.— D. Mom. 

'T is night — and in darkness the visions of youth 
Flit solemn and slow in the eye of the mind ; 

The hope they excited hath perished, and truth 
Laments o'er the wrecks they are leaving behind. 

? T is midnight — and wide o'er the regions of riot 
Are spread, deep in silence, the wings of repose ; 



EXERCISE IN PARSING. 141 

And man, soothed from revel, and lulled into quiet, 
Forgets in his slumbers the weight of his woes. 

How gloomy and dim is the scowl of the heaven, 

Whose azure the clouds with their darkness invest ; 
Not a star o'er the shadowy concave is given, 

To omen a something like hope to the breast. 
Hark ! how the lone night-wind uptosses the forest ! 

A downcast regret through the mind slowly steals ; 
But ah ! 't is the tempest of fortune that sorest 

The bosom of man in his solitude feels ! 

Where, where are the spirits in whom we may trust. 

Whose bosoms with mutual affection did burn ? 
Alas ! they have gone to their homes in the dust, 

The grass rustles drearily over their urn : 
While I, in a populous solitude, languish, 

'Mid foes that beset me, and friends that are cold ; 
Ah ! the pilgrim of earth oft has felt in his anguish, 

That the heart may be widowed before it is old ! 

Affection can sooth but its votaries an hour, 

Doomed soon in the flames that it raised to depart ; 
And, ah ! disappointment has poison and power 

To ruffle and sour the most patient of heart. 
Too oft, 'neath the barb-poisoned arrows of malice, 

Has merit been destined to bear and to bleed ; 
And they, who of pleasure have emptied the chalice, 

Have found that the dregs were full bitter indeed, 



LESSON XVII. 
AN EXTRACT. 

How oft soe'er 
Frail, wavering, thoughtless, and inconstant man, 
Deluded by temptation's snare, o'ercome 
By passion's sway, may wander from the paths 
That lead to bliss ; yet will he turn at length 
To thee, his only hope — his sole support 
And guide ! Yes, though he seek to gratify 



142 LESSONS FOR 

Each wish, t' enjoy each passing good this world 

Affords ; yet ne'er will he know true content, 

Or permanent delight on earth. O what 

Are all the joys, the eagerly-sought joys, 

We meet with here ? Like empty vapors, 

Soon they disappear, and cease to charm us more. 

How truly trivial seem the fleeting hours 

Of man's terrestrial pilgrimage, when weighed 

In the just balance of eternity ! 

Almighty Father ! though my erring steps, 

In the wild chase of false felicities, 

Have often strayed from thee — though I too oft 

Forsake the flowery way, to run through thorns 

And briers — still be thou with me ; still let 

Thy guardian spirit hover round my path, 

To guide, protect, to succor and befriend. 

O send one ray of light divine, t' illume 

My wandering, benighted mind. Teach me to fly 

From passion's dreaded sway, to apply my heart 

To wisdom, and the knowledge of thy vast 

And wondrous works. Bid me to shun the false, 

The fleeting meteors of this world, that lure 

But to betray. On an immortal base, 

Teach me, O God ! to build my every hope, 

And pant for joys that never can expire. 

Thou hast pronounced — not in the brief delight 

The transitory objects of this world 

Afford, can mortal man find true content, 

Or lasting happiness. 



LESSON XVIII. 
THE GRAVE OF THE YEAR.— G. A. Gamage. 

Be composed every toil and each turbulent motion, 
That encircles the heart in life's treacherous snares, 

And the hour that invites to the calm of devotion, 
Undisturbed by regrets, unencumbered by cares. 



EXERCISE IN PARSING. 143 

How cheerless the late blooming face of creation ! 

Weary Time seems to pause in his rapid career, 
And, fatfgued with the work of his own desolation, 

Looks behind, with a smile, on the Grave of the Year ! 

Hark ! the wind whistles rudely, the shadows are closing, 

Which enwrap his broad path in the mantle of night — 
While pleasure's gay sons are in quiet reposing, 

Undisturbed by the wrecks that have numbered his flight. 
In yon temple, where fashion's bright tapers are lighted, 

Her votaries, in crowds, decked with garlands appear — 
And, as yet their warm hopes by no spectre affrighted, 

Assemble to dance round the Grave of the Year ! 



Oh ! I hate the false cup that the idlers have tasted, 

When I think on the ills of life's comfortless day ; 
How the flowers of my childhood their odor have wasted, 

And the friends of my youth have been stolen away 
I think not how fruitless the warmest endeavor 

To recall the kind moments, neglected when near, 
When the hours that Oblivion has cancelled forever, 

Are interred by her hand in the Grave of the Year ! 

Since the last solemn reign of this day of reflection, 

What throngs have relinquished life's perishing breath ! 
How many have shed the sad tear of dejection, 

And closed the dim eye in the darkness of death ! 
How many have sudden their pilgrimage ended, 

Beneath the lone pall that envelopes the bier ; 
Or to Death's lonely valley have gently descended, 

And made their cold beds with the Grave of the Year ! 

'Tis the year that so late, its new beauty disclosing, 

Rose bright on the happy, the careless and gay. 
Who now on their pillows of dust are reposing^" 

While the sod presses damp on their bosoms of clay ! 
Then think not of bliss, when its smile is expiring — 

Disappointment still drowns it in misery's tear ; 
Reflect, and be wise — for the day is retiring, 

And to-morrow will dawn on the Grave of the Year! 



144 LESSONS FOR EXERCISE IN PARSING* '*'" " m-w* ' 

LESSON XIX. 
MISCELLANEOUS AND DIFFICULT SENTENCES, / 

" The morning bids the lark awake, 
And tune his notes of praise." 

I dare not trust you with it, so you need not trouble me any 
more about it. 

Had I the control of him, I would make him know his 
place, and perform his duty better. 

I saw the man take the horse from the stable, put it into 
the chaise, and ride away with it. 

I heard Mr. Smith say, last night, that he saw the man 
yesterday, and told him to come to-morrow. 

1 admire to hear Mr. Webster speak ; his sound and lucid 
argument, his bold and manly eloquence, and more than all, 
his warm and well tried patriotism, make every hearer ac- 
knowledge his superiority as a man and a statesman. 

Do you not feel the south wind blow,, and see that black 
cloud arise ? We shall soon hear the thunder roll in startling 
peals. Let us make haste and seek us a shelter from the 
storm. 

They resided four years in Boston, after which they lived 
seven years in Providence. 

My father bought me and my sister a book, but it is not^ 
worth what he gave for it. 

Water, when frozen, becomes ice,, and ice, when it is ex- 
posed to heat, becomes water again. 

I went to Boston last week by the railroad, and rode twenty 
miles an hour ; I staid there four days and returned yesterday. 

He that hath ears to hear, let him hear. 

Would to heaven I had known of his misfortune, I would 
have granted him assistance. 

I wish to have you attend to your studies and endeavor to 
profit by the advantages that you enjoy. 

Charles, let me see you do that again. 

He lived the life of a christian, and has, no doubt, died the 
death of the righteous. 

Our Father, who art in heaven, hallowed be thy name. 
Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done on earth as it is done 
in heaven. 



